(Ebook) Colour in food improving quality 1st Edition by Douglas MacDougall ISBN 9780849315428 0849315425

Chapter 1. Introduction

1.1 References

Part I: Perceiving and measuring colour

Chapter 2. The perception and sensory assessment of colour

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Expectations and the information transfer process

2.3 Total appearance

2.4 Viewer-dependent variables

2.5 Scene-dependent variables

2.6 The mechanics of vision

2.7 Colour perception

2.8 Colour vision deficiency

2.9 Sensory assessment of appearance properties

2.10 Panel selection, screening and training

2.11 Factors affecting panel performance

2.12 Halo effects

2.13 Physical requirements for food appearance assessment

2.14 Lighting for appearance assessment

2.15 Appearance profile analysis

2.16 Future trends

2.17 Sources of information and advice

2.18 References

Chapter 3. Colour measurement of food

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Colour vision: trichromatic detection

3.3 The influence of ambient light and food structure

3.4 Appearance

3.5 Absorption and scatter

3.6 Colour description: the CIE system

3.7 Colour description: uniform colour space

3.8 Instrumentation

3.9 Food colour appearance measurement in practice

3.10 Illuminant spectra and uniform colour

3.11 Conclusions and future trends

3.12 References

Chapter 4. Models of colour perception and colour appearance

4.1 Introduction: colour specification systems and colour appearance models

4.2 The retinal image

4.3 Colour appearance: colour constancy

4.4 Colour appearance: simultaneous colour contrast

4.5 Colour appearance: colour assimilation

4.6 The nature of colour contrast

4.7 Modelling colour appearance

4.8 Future trends

4.9 References

Chapter 5. Colour measurement of foods by colour reflectance

5.1 Introduction: food colour and quality

5.2 Colour measurement principles and methods

5.3 Colour measurement methodology

5.4 Colour measurement of typical food materials

5.5 Powders, granules and flakes (Table 5.1)

5.6 Particulate and lumpy solids (Table 5.2)

5.7 Large area solid foods (Table 5.3)

5.8 Pastes and slurries (Table 5.4)

5.9 Liquids (Table 5.5)

5.10 Conclusions and future trends

5.11 Sources of further information and advice

5.12 References

Chapter 6. Colour sorting for the bulk food industry

6.1 Introduction

6.2 The optical sorting machine

6.3 Assessment of objects for colour sorting

6.4 Spectrophotometry

6.5 Monochromatic and bichromatic sorting

6.6 Dual monochromatic and trichromatic sorting

6.7 Fluorescence and infra-red techniques

6.8 Optical sorting with lasers

6.9 The optical inspection system

6.10 Illumination

6.11 Background and aperture

6.12 Optical filters and detectors

6.13 The sorting system: feed

6.14 The sorting system: ejection

6.15 Cleaning and dust extraction

6.16 The electronic processing system

6.17 The limitations of colour sorting

6.18 Future trends

6.19 Further reading

6.20 References

Part II: Colour control in food

Chapter 7. The chemistry of food colour

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Classification of food colorants

7.3 Isoprenoid derivatives

7.4 Benzopyran and tetrapyrrole derivatives

7.5 Melanins, melanoidins and caramels

7.6 Other natural colorants

7.7 Chemical structure and light absorption

7.8 Molecular orbital theory and food colorants

7.9 Chemical stability of food colorants

7.10 Thermal stability

7.11 Irradiation

7.12 High pressure processing

7.13 Future trends

7.14 References

Chapter 8. Colour stability in vegetables

8.1 Introduction

8.2 The chemistry and occurrence of vegetable pigments: chlorophylls, carotenoids, flavonoids and be

8.3 The stability of pigments

8.4 Post-harvest influences on vegetable colour

8.5 Heating and vegetable colour

8.6 Freezing and vegetable colour

8.7 Maintaining vegetable colour

8.8 Future trends

8.9 References

Chapter 9. Modelling colour stability in meat

9.1 Introduction

9.2 External factors affecting colour stability during packaging and storage

9.3 Modelling dynamic changes in headspace gas composition

9.4 Modelling in practice: fresh beef

9.5 Modelling in practice: cured ham

9.6 Internal factors affecting colour stability

9.7 Validation of models

9.8 Future trends

9.9 References

Chapter 10. Analysing changes in fruit pigments

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Pigments in fruits: chlorophylls, carotenoids and anthocyanins

10.3 Categorising fruits by pigment composition

10.4 The formation and transformation of pigments during fruit development and ripening

10.5 Chlorophylls

10.6 Carotenoids

10.7 Anthocyanins

10.8 Postharvest changes in fruit pigment composition

10.9 Fruit colour, pigment composition and quality

10.10 Physico-chemical and enzymatic factors affecting fruit stability

10.11 Measuring colour and pigment composition

10.12 Future trends

10.13 References

Chapter 11. Improving natural pigments by genetic modification of crop plants

11.1 Introduction

11.2 The genetic modification of crop plants

11.3 Pigments in fruits

11.4 Enhancing fruit pigments: flavonoids

11.5 Enhancing fruit pigments: carotenoids

11.6 Future trends

11.7 Sources of further information and advice

11.8 References

Chapter 12. Food colorings

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Food, drug and cosmetic colorants

12.3 Carotenoid extracts

12.4 Lycopene

12.5 Lutein

12.6 Annatto and saffron

12.7 Paprika

12.8 Synthetic carotenoids

12.9 Anthocyanins

12.10 Betalains

12.11 Chlorophylls

12.12 Turmeric

12.13 Cochineal and carmine

12.14 Monascus

12.15 Iridoids

12.16 Phycobilins

12.17 Caramel

12.18 Brown polyphenols

12.19 Titanium dioxide

12.20 Carbon black

12.21 Miscellaneous colorants

12.22 Outlook

12.23 References

Chapter 13. Developments in natural colourings

13.1 Introduction: the use of natural colourings in food

13.2 The range of natural colourings

13.3 Factors in selecting natural colours

13.4 Quality control issues

13.5 Storage and handling issues

13.6 Improving natural colour functionality

13.7 Future trends in natural colours

13.8 Sources of further information and advice

13.9 References

Chapter 14. Calibrated colour imaging analysis of food

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Digital camera characterisation

14.3 Colorimetrically-based camera characterisation

14.4 Spectral-based camera characterisation

14.5 The DigiEye imaging system

14.6 Applying colour imaging analysis to the measurement of particular foods

14.7 Applying colour imaging analysis to the sensory analysis of foods

14.8 Future trends

14.9 Sources of further information and advice

14.10 References

Index