(Ebook) The John Zink Combustion Handbook 3 Volume Set 2nd Edition by Charles E Baukal Jr ISBN 9781322623665 132262366X

(Ebook) The John Zink Combustion Handbook 3 Volume Set 2nd Edition by Charles E Baukal Jr ISBN 9781322623665 132262366X

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ISBN 10: 132262366X
ISBN 13: 9781322623665
Author: Charles E Baukal Jr

Despite the length of time it has been around, its importance, and vast amounts of research, combustion is still far from being completely understood. Issues regarding the environment, cost, and fuel consumption add further complexity, particularly in the process and power generation industries. Dedicated to advancing the art and science of industrial combustion, The John Zink Hamworthy Combustion Handbook, Second Edition covers the fundamental concepts and theory, design and operations, and important industry applications. Now in three volumes, this second edition of the bestselling handbook has been completely updated and expanded to provide an up-to-date look at industrial combustion. Under the leadership of Charles E. Baukal, Jr., top engineers and technologists from John Zink Hamworthy Combustion offer insights on a wide range of topics. Volume 1 introduces the interdisciplinary fundamentals, including chemistry, fluid flow, and heat transfer. A field manual for operators, engineers, and managers, Volume 2 looks at equipment design and operations, from testing to installation and maintenance to troubleshooting. Building on the first two volumes, Volume 3 examines industry applications such as process burners, boiler burners, process flares, thermal oxidizers, and vapor control. What's New in This Edition - HighlightsExtensive updates and revisions throughout, reflecting new standards, energy sources, processes, and conservation concernsUpdated information on HPI/CPI industries, including alternative fuels, advanced refining techniques, emissions standards, and new technologiesNew practices in coal combustion, such as gasificationThe latest developments in cold-flow modeling, CFD-based modeling, and mathematical modelingGreater coverage of pollution emissions and NOx reduction techniquesNew material on combustion diagnostics, testing, and trainingExpanded coverage of flares, thermal oxidizers, and commercial and utility boiler burnersMore property data useful for the design and operation of combustion equipmentCoverage of metallurgy, refractories, blowers, and vapor control equipmentThis second edition continues to provide the comprehensive coverage, up-to-date information, and visual presentation that made the first edition an industry standard. Featuring color illustrations and photographs throughout, this definitive guide helps you broaden your understanding of industrial combustion to better meet the challenges of this dynamic field. For more information about the individual volumes in the The John Zink Hamworthy Combustion Handbook, Second Edition, see:Volume 1: FundamentalsVolume 2: Design and OperationsVolume 3: Applications

(Ebook) The John Zink Combustion Handbook 3 Volume Set 2nd Edition Table of contents:

VOLUME 1:

1 Introduction

1.1 Process Industries

1.1.1 Hydrocarbon and Petrochemical

1.1.2 Power Generation

1.1.3 Pollution Control

1.2 Literature Review

1.2.1 Combustion

1.2.2 Process Industries

1.2.3 Combustion in the Process Industries

1.3 Fired Heaters

1.3.1 Reformers

1.3.2 Process Heaters

1.4 Burners

1.4.1 Competing Priorities

1.4.2 Design Factors

1.4.2.1 Fuel

1.4.2.2 Oxidizer

1.4.2.3 Gas Recirculation

1.4.3 General Burner Types

1.4.3.1 Mixing Type

1.4.3.2 Fuel Type

1.4.3.3 Combustion Air Temperature

1.4.3.4 Draft Type

1.4.3.5 Location

1.4.4 Potential Problems

1.5 Design Tools

1.6 Conclusions

References

2 Refining and Petrochemical Industries

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Refining

2.2.1 Introduction

2.2.2 Examples of Refining Processes

2.2.2.1 Crude Distillation

2.2.2.2 Visbreaking

2.2.2.3 Hydrotreating

2.2.2.4 Catalytic Reforming

2.2.2.5 Delayed Coking

2.3 Reforming

2.3.1 Introduction

2.3.2 Reforming Reactions

2.3.3 Reforming Catalyst

2.3.4 Reforming for Hydrogen

2.3.5 Reforming for ammonia

2.3.6 Reforming for Methanol

2.4 Ethylene

2.4.1 introduction

2.4.2 Kinetics of Thermal Cracking

2.4.3 Severity of Cracking

2.4.4 Typical Product Distribution

2.4.5 Coking

2.4.6 Decoking

References

3 Fuels

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Oil Recovery

3.3 Natural Gas

3.4 Processing, Refining, and Fuel Use

3.4.1 Liquefied Petroleum Gas

3.4.2 Refinery Gases

3.4.3 Combustible Off-Gas Streams

3.4.3.1 Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) Tail Gas

3.4.3.2 Flexicoking Waste Gas

3.4.4 Liquid Fuels

3.4.4.1 Light Oils

3.4.4.2 Heavy Oils

3.4.4.3 Residual Oils

3.4.5 Liquid Naphtha

3.4.6 Typical Flared gas Compositions

3.4.6.1 Oil Field/Production Plant Gases

3.4.6.2 Refinery Gases

3.4.6.3 Ethylene/Polyethylene Gases

3.4.6.4 Other Special Cases

3.5 Fuel Properties

3.5.1 Molecular Weight

3.5.2 Lower and Higher Heating Values

3.5.3 Specific Heat Capacity

3.5.4 Flammability Limits

3.5.5 Flame Speed

3.5.6 Viscosity

3.5.7 Derived Quantities

3.5.7.1 Partial Pressure

3.5.7.2 Adiabatic Flame Temperature

3.5.7.3 Heat Release

3.5.7.4 Volume Equivalent of Flow

3.5.8 Liquid Fuel Properties

3.5.8.1 Flash Point

3.5.8.2 Pour Point

3.5.8.3 Distillation

3.5.8.4 Viscosity

3.5.8.5 Density, Gravity, Specific Volume, and Specific Weight

3.5.8.6 Heat Capacity (Specific Heat)

3.5.9 Photographs of Gaseous Fuel Flames

References

4 Combustion Fundamentals

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Uses for Combustion

4.3 Brief Overview of Combustion Equipment and Heat Transfer

4.4 Chemical Combustion Fundamentals

4.4.1 States of Matter

4.4.2 Physical Properties of Matter

4.4.3 Chemical Structure

4.4.4 Periodic Table

4.4.5 Equations and Avogadro’s Number

4.5 Gaseous State

4.5.1 Kinetic Molecular Theory

4.5.2 gas Laws

4.5.3 Standard and Normal Air

4.5.4 Properties of air

4.5.5 Humidity

4.5.6 Psychrometric Chart

4.5.7 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures, Saturation, and Superheated Vapor

4.6 Oxidation-Reduction Equations

4.6.1 Redox Reactions of Gaseous Fuels and Excess air

4.6.2 Flue Gas

4.7 Air-to-Fuel Ratio

4.7.1 Air-to-Fuel Mixture Ratio

4.7.2 Air-to-Fuel Mass Ratio

4.7.3 Turbine Exhaust Gas

4.8 Chemical Thermodynamics

4.8.1 Enthalpy, Entropy, and Heat Capacity

4.8.2 Heat of Combustion

4.8.3 Adiabatic Flame Temperature

4.8.4 Dissociation

4.9 Practical Liquid Fuels

4.10 Combustion Kinetics

4.10.1 Thermal NOx Formation

4.10.2 Prompt NOx Formation

4.10.3 Fuel-Bound NOx

4.11 Flame Properties

4.11.1 Flame Temperature

4.11.2 Available Heat

4.11.3 Minimum ignition Energy

4.11.4 Flammability Limits

4.11.5 Flame Speeds

4.12 Substoichiometric Combustion

4.12.1 Equilibrium and Thermodynamics

4.12.2 Substoichiometric Combustion Revisited

4.13 General Discussion

4.13.1 Air Preheat Effects

4.13.2 Fuel Blend Effects

4.14 Emissions

4.15 Quick Sizing

4.15.1 Finding Saturated Humidity

4.15.2 Stoichiometric Combustion of Air Simplified

4.15.3 Density of Low Pressure Gases

References

5 Solid Fuel Combustion in Suspension

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Fuel Properties and Characterization

5.2.1 Coal

5.2.2 Wood, Biomass, and Pet Coke

Oxidation of Solid Fuels

5.3.1 Heat-up, Devolatilization, and Volatile Oxidation

5.3.2 Char Oxidation

5.3.3 Flammability Characteristics

5.4 Fuel Conveying

5.4.1 Pressure Drop Calculations in Solid/gas Conveying

5.4.2 Horizontal Transport

5.4.3 Vertical Transport and Minor losses

5.4.4 Conveying Options

5.5 Burner Designs

5.5.1 utility and Multiburner applications

5.5.2 industrial burners

5.5.3 Support Fuel

5.6 Furnace and Control Considerations

5.7 Combustion Controls

5.8 Emission Formation and Prediction

5.9 Conclusions

References

6 Catalytic Combustion

6.1 Catalytic Combustion

6.2 Fundamentals

6.2.1 Process

6.2.2 Measurement and Control Engineering

6.2.2.1 Selection of Catalyst

6.2.2.2 Deactivation and Reactivation of Catalysts

6.2.2.3 Criteria for Selecting a Suitable Catalyst

6.2.2.4 Protective Measures against Catalyst Deactivation

6.2.2.5 Reactivation of Catalysts

6.3 Process Details

6.3.1 reactor Types

6.3.2 Safety Systems

6.3.3 Prevention of Pollutant Enrichment and Overheating

6.3.4 Emergency Bypass

6.4 Detail Process Measuring and Control Engineering

6.5 Other Facility Components

6.5.1 Buffer Systems

6.6 Energy Demand and Heat Recovery

6.7 Different Design of Catalytic Waste Gas Cleaning Systems

VOLUME 2:

1 Safety

1.1 Introduction

1.1.1 Definitions

1.1.2 Combustion Tetrahedron

1.2 Safety Review

1.3 Hazards

1.3.1 Excessive Temperature

1.3.2 Thermal Radiation

1.3.3 Noise

1.3.4 High Pressure

1.3.5 Fires

1.3.5.1 Heat Damage

1.3.5.2 Smoke Generation

1.3.6 Explosions

1.3.6.1 Explosions in Tanks and Piping

1.3.6.2 Explosions in Stacks

1.3.6.3 Explosions in Furnaces

1.3.7 Flame Instability

1.3.8 Environmental

1.4 Codes and Standards

1.4.1 NFPA Codes and Standards

1.4.1.1 NFPA 86: Standard for Ovens and Furnaces, 2011 Edition

1.4.1.2 NFPA 70: National Electric Code (NEC), Updated Annually

1.4.1.3 NFPA 497: Classification of Flammable Liquids, Gases, or Vapors and of Hazardous (Classified) Locations for Electrical Installations in Chemical Process Areas, 2012 Edition

1.4.1.4 NFPA 54: National Fuel Gas Code, 1999 Edition

1.4.1.5 NFPA 58: Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, 2011 Edition

1.4.1.6 NFPA 30: Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 1996 Edition

1.4.1.7 NFPA 921: Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations, 2011 Edition

1.4.2 Additional Standards and Guidelines

1.4.3 Industrial Insurance Carriers

1.4.4 Testing Laboratories

1.5 Accident Prevention

1.5.1 Ignition Control

1.5.2 General

1.6 Accident Mitigation

1.6.1 Design Engineering

1.6.1.1 Flammability Characteristics

1.6.1.2 Ignition Control

1.6.1.3 Fire Extinguishment

1.7 Safety Documentation and Operator Training

1.7.1 Design Information

1.7.2 Process Hazard Analysis Reports

1.7.3 Standard Operating Procedures

1.7.4 Operator Training and Documentation

1.8 Recommendations

1.9 Sources for Further Information

References

2 Combustion Controls

2.1 Fundamentals

2.1.1 Control Platforms

2.1.1.1 Relay System

2.1.1.2 Burner Controller

2.1.1.3 Loop Controller

2.1.1.4 Programmable Logic Controller

2.1.1.5 Distributed Control System

2.1.1.6 Hybrid Systems

2.1.1.7 Future Systems

2.1.2 Discrete Control Systems

2.1.3 Analog Control Systems

2.1.4 Failure Modes

2.1.5 Agency Approvals and Safety

2.1.5.1 Double Block and Bleed for Fuel Supply

2.1.5.2 Unsatisfactory Parameter System Shutdown

2.1.5.3 Local Reset Required after System Shutdown

2.1.5.4 Watchdog Timer to Verify PLC Operation

2.1.5.5 Critical Input Checking to Verify PLC Operation

2.1.5.6 Master Fuel Trip Relay Operation

2.1.6 Pipe Racks and Control Panels

2.2 Primary Measurement

2.2.1 Discrete Devices

2.2.1.1 Annunciators

2.2.1.2 Pressure Switches

2.2.1.3 Position Switches

2.2.1.4 Temperature Switches

2.2.1.5 Flow Switches

2.2.1.6 Run Indicators

2.2.1.7 Flame Scanners

2.2.1.8 Solenoid Valves

2.2.1.9 Ignition Transformers

2.2.2 Analog Devices

2.2.2.1 Control Valves

2.2.2.2 Thermocouples

2.2.2.3 Velocity Thermocouples

2.2.2.4 Resistance Temperature Detectors

2.2.2.5 Pressure Transmitters

2.2.2.6 Flow Meters

2.2.2.7 Analytical Instruments

2.3 Control Schemes

2.3.1 Parallel Positioning

2.3.1.1 Mechanical Linkage

2.3.1.2 Electronic Linkage

2.3.1.3 Characterizer Calculations

2.3.2 Fully Metered Cross Limiting

2.4 Controllers

2.5 Tuning

References

3 Blowers for Combustion Systems

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Applications

3.3 Types of Blowers for Combustion Systems

3.4 Fan Arrangements

3.5 Design Considerations

3.5.1 Fan Control

3.5.2 Materials of Construction

3.5.3 Motors and Drives

3.5.4 Couplings and Belts

3.5.5 Bearings and Lubrication

3.5.6 Vibration and Installation

3.5.7 Shaft Seals

3.5.8 Noise Considerations

3.5.9 Filtration

3.6 Operational Costs

3.7 Inspection and Testing

3.8 Maintenance and Troubleshooting

References

4 Metallurgy

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Background

4.2.1 Carbon Steel

4.2.1.1 Composition of Carbon Steel

4.2.1.2 Iron Oxide Scale

4.2.2 Stainless Steel

4.2.2.1 Brief History

4.2.2.2 Chromium Oxide Scale

4.2.2.3 Types of Stainless Steel

4.2.2.4 Metals Commonly Used in the Process Burner and Flare Industries

4.3 Common Forms of Metal Failure in the Combustion Industry

4.3.1 Intergranular Corrosion

4.3.2 Stress Corrosion Cracking

4.3.3 Breakaway Corrosion

4.3.4 Sulfidation Attack

4.3.5 Hot Corrosion

4.3.6 Chlorination Attack

4.3.7 Carburization Corrosion

4.3.7.1 Exposure to Carbonaceous Environments

4.3.7.2 Metal Dusting

4.3.8 Cryogenic Service

4.4 Material Selection

4.4.1 Process Burners

4.4.1.1 Air Plenum

4.4.1.2 Fuel Delivery System

4.4.1.3 Flame Holders/Stabilizers

4.4.2 Process Flares

4.4.2.1 Flare Burner (Typical)

4.4.2.2 Pilots

4.4.2.3 Moleseals and Flare Riser

4.5 Examples and Case Histories

4.5.1 Process Burners

4.5.1.1 Formation of Oxide Scale on Heater Process Tubes

4.5.1.2 Ruptured Process Tubes

4.5.1.3 Process Tube Distortion

4.5.1.4 Burner Damage

4.5.1.5 Control Valve Damage

4.5.1.6 Oil Gun Damage

4.5.1.7 Corroded Orifice Spud

4.5.1.8 Damaged Premixed Burner Tip

4.5.2 Process Flares

4.5.2.1 Flame Retention Segments

4.5.2.2 Pilot in an Enclosed Flare

4.5.2.3 Pilot on an Elevated Flare

4.5.2.4 Air-Assisted Flare

4.5.2.5 Steam-Assisted Flare

4.6 Welding

4.6.1 Types of Welding Processes

4.6.2 Welding Carbon Steel

4.6.3 Welding Stainless Steel

4.7 Nondestructive Testing

4.7.1 Introduction

4.7.2 Liquid Penetrant Testing

4.7.3 Magnetic Particle Testing

4.7.4 Radiographic Testing

4.7.5 Ultrasonic Testing

4.7.6 Positive Material Identification/Alloy Verification

4.7.7 Metallographic Replication

References

5 Refractory for Combustion Systems

5.1 Introduction

5.2 What Are Refractories?

5.3 Monolithic Refractory Products

5.3.1 Hydraulically Bonded Castables

5.3.2 Chemically (Phos) Bonded Castables

5.3.3 Chemically Bonded Plastics

5.4 Brick Refractory Products

5.4.1 Characteristics of Refractory Brick

5.4.2 Refractory Brick Installation

5.5 Soft Refractory Products

5.6 Refractory Materials: Chemical and Physical Properties

5.6.1 Typical Refractory Systems

5.6.2 Refractory Anchoring Systems

5.6.2.1 Primary Function

5.6.2.2 V-Anchors

5.6.2.3 Footed Wavy V-Anchor

5.6.2.4 Double-Hooked V-Anchor

5.6.2.5 Tined Anchors

5.6.2.6 Anchor Distance below Refractory Surface

5.6.2.7 Anchor Spacing

5.6.2.8 Steel Fiber Reinforcing

5.6.2.9 Other Refractory Anchoring Systems

5.7 API-936 Considerations

5.7.1 Surface Preparation

5.7.2 Installer Certification

5.7.3 Curing, Drying, and Firing

5.7.4 Repairs to Existing Refractory Lining Systems

5.7.5 Inspection of Existing Refractory Lining Systems

5.7.6 Shipping Refractory Equipment to Tropical Environments

5.7.7 Laboratory Testing

Reference

6 Burner Design

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Combustion

6.3 Burner Design

6.3.1 Metering: Fuel

6.3.1.1 Gas Fuel

6.3.1.2 Liquid Fuel

6.3.2 Metering: Air (Combustion O2)

6.3.2.1 Natural Draft

6.3.2.2 Forced Draft

6.3.3 Air Control

6.3.4 Mixing Fuel/Air

6.3.4.1 Entrainment

6.3.4.2 Co-Flow

6.3.4.3 Cross Flow

6.3.4.4 Flow Stream Disruption

6.3.5 Maintain (Ignition)

6.3.6 Mold (Patterned and Controlled Flame Shape)

6.3.7 Minimize (Pollutants)

6.4 Burner Types

6.4.1 Premix and Partial Premix Gas

6.4.2 Raw Gas or Nozzle Mix

6.4.3 Oil or Liquid Firing

6.4.3.1 High-Viscosity Liquid Fuels

6.4.3.2 Low-Viscosity Liquids

6.4.4 High Intensity (KEU Combustor)

6.4.5 Conventional Process Heater Application High Intensity

6.5 Configuration (Mounting and Direction of Firing)

6.5.1 Conventional Burner, Round Flame

6.5.2 Flat Flame Burner

6.5.2.1 Wall Fired

6.5.2.2 Freestanding

6.5.3 Radiant Wall

6.5.4 Downfired

6.6 Materials Selection

References

7 Combustion Diagnostics

7.1 Pressure Management

7.1.1 Manometer

7.1.2 Bourdon Tube Gauge

7.1.2.1 Design of the Bourdon Tube Gauge

7.1.2.2 Common Failure Mechanisms

7.1.2.3 Calibration of Pressure Gauges

7.1.2.4 Selection

7.1.2.5 Installation

7.2 Flow Measurement

7.2.1 Orifice Meter

7.2.1.1 Description

7.2.1.2 Upstream Flow Conditioners

7.2.1.3 Calculating the Mass Flow Rate

7.2.1.4 Accuracy of Flow Measurements

7.2.2 Venturi Meter

7.2.3 Turbine Flow Meter

7.2.4 Vortex Flow Meter

7.2.5 Magnetic Flow Meter

7.2.6 Ultrasonic Flow Meter

7.2.7 Thermal Mass Meter

7.2.8 Positive Displacement Meter

7.2.9 Pitot Tube

7.2.10 Averaging Pitot Tube

7.3 Advanced Diagnostics

7.3.1 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy

7.3.2 Phase Doppler Particulate Anemometer

7.3.3 Liquid Planar Laser-Induced Fluorescence

References

8 Burner Testing

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Burner Testing

8.2.1 Benefits

8.2.2 Drawbacks

8.2.3 Burner Testing versus CFD

8.2.4 Testing Parameters and Measurements

8.3 Burner Testing Equipment and Methodology

8.3.1 Test Furnaces

8.3.2 Air Delivery Systems

8.3.3 Instrumentation and Control

8.3.4 Fuel Flow and Composition

8.3.5 Flue Gas Analysis

8.3.6 Flue Gas Temperature and Pressure

8.4 Special Equipment

8.4.1 Heat Flux

8.4.2 CO Probe

8.4.3 Noise

8.4.4 Unburned Hydrocarbons, Particulate Matter, and Oxides of Sulfur

8.5 Test Fuel Selection

8.6 Test Procedure

8.7 Conclusions

References

9 Flare Testing

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Literature Review

9.2.1 Large-Scale Flare Test Facilities

9.2.2 Field Testing of Flares

9.3 Large-Scale Flare Test Facility

9.3.1 System Description

9.3.2 Flow Control System

9.3.3 Data Acquisition System

9.3.3.1 Thermal Radiation

9.3.3.2 Noise

9.3.3.3 Flare Conditions

9.4 Flare Pilot Test Facility

9.5 Sample Experimental Results

9.5.1 Hydrostatic Testing

9.5.2 Cold Flow Visualization

9.5.3 Ground Flare Burner Interactions

9.5.4 Unassisted Flare

9.5.5 Air-Assisted Flares

9.5.6 Steam-Assisted Flare

9.5.7 Water-Assisted Flare

9.6 Summary

References

10 Thermal Oxidizer Testing

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Equipment and Facility Design Objectives

10.3 Test Data Accuracy

10.4 Thermal Oxidizer Equipment Testing

10.4.1 Burners

10.4.2 Thermal Oxidizer Chambers

10.4.3 Waste Gas Injection Methods and Configurations

10.4.4 Test Equipment Sizing

10.5 Simulating Thermal Oxidizer Input Streams

10.5.1 Combustion Air

10.5.2 Quench Medium

10.5.3 Burner Fuel

10.5.4 Simulating Waste Streams

10.5.4.1 Endothermic Waste Gas Streams

10.5.4.2 Exothermic Waste Streams

10.5.4.3 Aqueous Wastes

10.5.4.4 Special Components

10.6 Instrumentation

10.6.1 Chemical Species Analysis

10.6.1.1 Analytical Methods and Instrumentation

10.6.1.2 Chemical Sample Collection

10.6.2 Flow Measurements

10.6.3 Temperature Measurement

10.6.4 Pressure Measurement

10.7 Conclusions

VOLUME 3:

1. Process Burners

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Classification Based on Emissions

1.2.1 Conventional Burners

1.2.1.1 Natural-Draft and Forced-Draft Burners

1.2.1.2 Premix Gas Burners

1.2.2 Low-NOx Burners

1.2.2.1 Staged-Air Burners

1.2.2.2 HAWAstar Burner

1.2.2.3 PLNC Combination Gas and Liquid Staged-Air Burners

1.2.2.4 Hamworthy Enviromix 2000 Burner

1.2.2.5 Hamworthy EEP Burner

1.2.2.6 Staged-Fuel Burner

1.2.2.7 PSFG Burner

1.2.2.8 PSFFG Burner

1.2.3 Ultralow-NOx Burners

1.2.3.1 Internal Flue Gas Recirculation: INFURNOx™ Technology

1.2.3.2 PSMR Burner

1.2.3.3 Lean Premix Burner

1.2.3.4 LPMF Burner

1.2.3.5 Enhanced Internal Flue Gas Recycle Burners

1.2.3.6 COOLstar® Burner

1.2.3.7 HALO® Burner

1.3 Flame Shape: Round versus Flat and Freestanding versus Wall-Fired

1.3.1 Round Flame Burners

1.3.1.1 MDBP Burner

1.3.1.2 PDSMR Mk-II Burner

1.3.2 Flat-Flame Wall-Fired Burners

1.3.2.1 PXMR Burner

1.3.2.2 PSFFR Burner

1.3.2.3 LPMF Burner

1.3.2.4 RTW Burner

1.3.3 Flat-Flame Freestanding Burners

1.3.3.1 PXMR-DS Burner

1.4 Radiant Wall Burners

1.4.1 Premix Radiant Wall Burners

1.4.1.1 PMS Burner

1.4.1.2 Hamworthy Walrad Burner

1.4.1.3 LPMW Burner

1.4.2 Raw Gas Radiant Wall Burners

1.4.2.1 FPMR Burner

1.5 Combination Gas and Oil Firing

1.5.1 Atomization Systems (Oil Guns)

1.5.1.1 John Zink EA Oil Gun (Internal Mixing Chamber)

1.5.1.2 John Zink MEA Oil Gun (Internal Mixing Chamber)

1.5.1.3 Hamworthy SAR (Steam Atomized Residual) Oil Gun

1.5.1.4 Hamworthy DS (Dual Stage) Oil Gun

1.5.1.5 John Zink PM Oil Gun (Port Mix Atomization)

1.5.1.6 HERO® Oil Gun

1.5.2 Combination Burner

1.5.2.1 Conventional Combination Burner

1.5.2.2 PLNC Burner

1.5.2.3 DEEPstar® Burner

1.6 Pilot Burners

1.6.1 Premix Pilots

1.6.1.1 John Zink ST-1-S Premix Gas Pilot

1.6.1.2 John Zink KE-1-ST Premix Gas Pilot

1.6.1.3 John Zink ST-2 Premix Gas Pilot

1.6.1.4 John Zink KE-2-ST Electric Ignition Premix Gas Pilot

1.6.2 Flame Detection

1.6.3 Ignition

References

2. Oil Burners

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Process Oil Burner

2.2.1 Oil Gun Type

2.2.2 Oil Flame Stabilization

2.2.3 Flame Shape

2.2.4 Emission Considerations

2.3 Boiler Oil Burner

2.3.1 Oil Gun Types

2.3.2 Oil Flame Stabilization

2.3.3 Flame Shaping

2.3.4 Emission Considerations

2.4 Oil Burner Performance

2.4.1 Flame Dimensions

2.4.2 Turndown Ratio

2.4.3 NOx Emissions

2.4.4 Particulate Emissions

2.4.5 Noise Level

2.5 Burner Performance Predictions

2.5.1 Droplet and Carbon Burnout

2.5.2 Emission Formation and Prediction

2.6 Oil Burner Maintenance

2.6.1 Oil Burner

2.6.2 Oil Gun

2.6.2.1 Oil Gun Insert Removal

2.6.2.2 Z-39-C

2.6.2.3 Z-56 “Quick Change”

2.6.2.4 Disassembly

2.6.2.5 Inspection

2.6.2.6 Assembly

2.7 Troubleshooting the Oil Burner

2.7.1 Effect on Operations

2.7.2 Corrective/Preventive Actions

2.7.3 Insufficient Air

2.7.4 Lack of Atomizing Pressure

2.7.5 Lack of Atomizing Flow

2.7.6 Wet Steam

2.7.7 Cold Oil (Heavy Oil)

2.7.8 Tip/Atomizer Failure

2.7.9 Regen/Diffuser Failure

2.7.10 Low Oil Flow/Low Oil Pressure

2.7.11 High Atomizing Pressure

2.7.12 Leaking Crossover Valve

2.7.13 High Steam Temperature

2.7.14 Incorrect Positioning of the Oil Tip

References

3. Burners and Combustion Systems for Industrial and Utility Boilers

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Burner Design Fundamentals

3.3 Techniques for Reducing NOx Formation

3.3.1 Flue-Gas Recirculation and Injection of Steam into the Flame

3.3.2 Air Staging

3.3.3 Fuel Staging

3.3.4 Lean Premixed Combustion

3.3.5 Furnace Gas Circulation and Combining Different Techniques

3.4 Burners for Package Boilers

3.4.1 Conventional Round Burners and Burners with Air Staging

3.4.2 Burners with Fuel Staging

3.4.3 Burners with Partial Lean Premixed Combustion

3.4.4 Premixed Burners

3.4.5 Burners for Low Heating Value Gaseous Fuels and Fuels with Highly Variable Composition

3.4.6 Oil Atomizers for Package Boilers

3.5 Burners for Enhanced Oil Recovery Boilers

3.6 Burners for Multiple Burner Process Steam Field-Erected Boilers

3.7 Gas and Oil Burners for Utility Boilers

3.7.1 Combustion Systems for Oil and Gas Wall-Fired Utility Boilers

3.7.1.1 NOx Reduction Techniques in Wall-Fired Utility Boilers

3.7.1.2 Burners for Wall-Fired Utility Boilers

3.7.2 Combustion Systems for Corner-Fired (T-Fired) Boilers

3.7.3 Oil Atomizers for Utility Burners

3.8 Specialized Burners

3.8.1 Warm-Up Burners

3.8.2 Flue-Gas Reheat Burners

3.9 Summary

References

4. Duct Burners

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Applications

4.2.1 Cogeneration

4.2.2 Combined Cycle

4.2.3 Air Heating

4.2.4 Fume Incineration

4.2.5 Stack Gas Reheat

4.3 Burner Technology

4.3.1 In-Duct or Inline Configuration

4.3.2 Grid Configuration (Gas Firing)

4.3.3 Grid Configuration (Liquid Firing)

4.4 Fuels

4.4.1 Natural Gas

4.4.1.1 Refinery/Chemical Plant Fuels

4.4.1.2 Low Heating Value

4.4.1.3 Liquid Fuels

4.5 Combustion Air and Turbine Exhaust Gas

4.5.1 Temperature and Composition

4.5.2 Turbine Power Augmentation

4.5.3 Velocity and Distribution

4.5.4 Ambient Air Firing (Air-Only Systems and HRSG Backup)

4.5.5 Augmenting Air

4.5.6 Equipment Configuration and TEG/Combustion Airflow Straightening

4.6 Physical Modeling

4.6.1 CFD Modeling

4.6.1.1 Wing Geometry: Variations

4.6.1.1.1 Flameholders

4.6.1.1.2 Basic Flameholder

4.6.1.1.3 Low-Emission Design

4.7 Emissions

4.7.1 Visible Plumes

4.7.2 NOx and NO vs. NO2

4.7.3 CO, UBHC, SOx, and Particulates

4.7.3.1 Carbon Monoxide

4.7.3.2 UHCs

4.7.3.3 Sulfur Dioxide

4.7.3.4 PM

4.8 Maintenance

4.8.1 Accessories

4.8.1.1 Burner Management System

4.8.1.2 Fuel Train

4.9 Design Guidelines and Codes

4.9.1 NFPA 8506 (National Fire Protection Association)

4.9.2 Factory Mutual (FM)

4.9.3 Underwriters Laboratories (UL)

4.9.4 American National Standards Institute (ANSI) B31.1 and B31.3

4.9.5 Others

References

5. Marine and Offshore Applications

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Fuels

5.2.1 Fuel Oils

5.2.2 Low-Sulfur Marine Gas Oil

5.2.3 LNG Boil-Off Gas

5.2.4 Produced Fuel Gas and Crude Oil

5.3 Auxiliary Boiler Applications

5.3.1 Small “Donkey” Auxiliary Boilers

5.3.2 Water-Tube Auxiliary Boilers

5.4 LNG Carriers

5.4.1 LNG-Carrier Main Propulsion Boilers

5.4.2 LNG-Carrier Gas Combustion Units

5.5 Offshore Applications

5.5.1 FPSOs

5.5.1.1 Tanker Converted FPSOs

5.5.1.2 FPSO New Boilers

5.5.2 FSOs

5.5.3 Floating LNG

5.5.3.1 LNG Re-Gasification Vessels

5.5.3.2 Floating LNG Production Vessels

6. Process Heaters

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Furnace Components

6.2.1 Firebox

6.2.2 Refractory

6.2.3 Radiant Tubes

6.2.4 Burners

6.2.5 Convection Section

6.2.6 Fans, Stacks, and Dampers

6.3 Common Heater Types

6.3.1 General

6.3.2 Refining Heaters

6.3.2.1 Refining Heater Design

6.3.2.2 Burners for Refining Processes

6.3.3 Delayed Coker Heaters

6.3.3.1 Coker Heater Design

6.3.3.2 Burners for Delayed Coker Heaters

6.3.4 Reforming Heaters

6.3.4.1 Reforming Furnace Design

6.3.4.2 Burners for Reforming Heaters

6.3.5 Steam Cracking Furnaces

6.3.5.1 Cracking Furnace Design

6.3.5.2 Burners for Cracking Furnaces

6.3.5.3 Integration with Turbine Exhaust Gas

6.4 Process Heater Design

6.4.1 Radiative Heat Transfer

6.4.1.1 Emissivity

6.4.1.2 Effective Radiant Coil Plane

6.4.1.3 Radiation from Nonluminous Flames

6.4.2 Lobo–Evans Method

6.4.2.1 Gas-Surface Exchange Area

6.4.2.2 Reduced Firebox Efficiency and Firing Density

6.4.2.3 Example of a Well-Stirred Firebox Calculation

6.4.3 Refinements of the Lobo–Evans Method

6.4.3.1 Effect of Nongray Gas Properties

6.4.3.2 Convective Heat Transfer

6.4.3.3 Imperfectly Stirred Firebox

6.4.3.4 Wall Losses

6.4.3.5 Generalized Firebox Model

References

7. Air Heaters

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Direct Fired Systems

7.2.1 Air Heater Features

7.3 Indirect Fired Systems

7.4 Air Heater Types

7.4.1 GSX Air Heaters

7.4.2 VTK Heater

7.4.3 VTN Heater

7.4.4 HG-WT Heaters

8. Thermal Oxidizer Basics

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Combustion Basics

8.2.1 Material and Energy Balance

8.2.2 Oxidizing/Reducing Combustion Processes

8.2.3 NOx Formation

8.2.3.1 Thermal NOx

8.2.3.2 Prompt NOx

8.2.3.3 Fuel NOx

8.2.4 Carbon Monoxide

8.2.5 Acid Gases

8.2.6 Particulates

8.3 Basic System Building Blocks

8.3.1 Burners

8.3.1.1 Pilots

8.3.1.2 Fuel Introduction

8.3.1.3 Waste Introduction

8.3.1.4 Low-Pressure-Drop Burners

8.3.1.5 Medium-Pressure-Drop to High-Pressure-Drop (Forced Draft) Burners

8.3.1.6 Combination Gas and Liquid Fuel Burners

8.3.2 Furnace/Thermal Oxidizer/Incinerator/Combustion Chamber

8.3.2.1 Size

8.3.2.2 Flow Configuration

8.3.3 Refractory

8.3.4 Catalytic Systems

8.3.5 Flue-Gas Processing Methods

8.3.5.1 Cooling by Heat Recovery

8.3.5.2 Cooling without Heat Recovery

8.3.5.3 Particulate/Acid-Gas Removal

8.3.5.4 NOx Control Methods

8.4 Blowers

8.5 Closing

Nomenclature

References

9. Thermal Oxidizer Control and Configurations

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Control Systems and Instrumentation

9.2.1 Multipurpose Automation Philosophy for TO Plants

9.2.1.1 Permanent Energy Balance

9.3 System Configurations

9.3.1 Non-Acid Gas Endothermic Waste Gas/Waste Liquid System

9.3.2 Non-Acid Gas Exothermic Waste Gas/Waste Liquid System

9.3.3 Sulfur-Bearing Acid Gas Systems

9.3.4 Halogenated Acid Gas Systems

9.3.5 Explosive Gases/Complex Liquid Systems

9.3.5.1 Design

9.3.5.2 Explosion Protection Safety Devices

9.3.5.3 Operating Conditions

9.3.6 Salts/Solids Systems

9.3.7 NOx Minimization or Reducing Systems

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