(Ebook) Sewer Processes Microbial and Chemical Process Engineering of Sewer Networks 2nd Edition by Thorkild Hvitved Jacobsen, Jes Vollertsen, Asbjørn Haaning Nielsen ISBN 9780367269081 0367269082

Chapter 1 Sewer Systems and Processes

1.1 Introduction and Purpose

1.2 Sewer Developments in A Historical Perspective

1.2.1 Early Days of Sewers

1.2.2 Sewers in Ancient Rome

1.2.3 Sewers in Middle Ages

1.2.4 Sewer Network of Today under Development

1.2.5 Sanitation: Hygienic Aspects of Sewers

1.2.6 Sewer and Its Adjacent Environment

1.2.7 Hydrogen Sulfide in Sewers

1.2.8 Final Comments

1.3 types and performance of sewer networks

1.3.1 Type of Sewage Collected

1.3.2 Transport Mode of Sewage Collected

1.3.3 Size and Function of Sewer

1.4 Sewer As A Reactor for Chemical and Microbial Processes

1.5 water and mass transport in sewers

1.5.1 Advection, Diffusion, and Dispersion

1.5.1.1 Advection

1.5.1.2 Molecular Diffusion

1.5.1.3 Dispersion

1.5.2 Hydraulics of Sewers

1.5.3 Mass Transport in Sewers

1.6 Sewer Process Approach

References

Chapter 2 In-Sewer Chemical and Physicochemical Processes

2.1 Redox Reactions

2.1.1 Chemical Equilibrium and Potential for Reaction

2.1.2 Redox Reactions in Sewers

2.1.3 redox Reactions and Thermodynamics

2.1.3.1 Nature of Redox Reactions

2.1.3.2 Redox Reactions and Thermodynamics

2.1.3.3 Redox Reactions and Phase changes

2.1.4 Stoichiometry of Redox Reactions

2.1.4.1 Oxidation Level

2.1.4.2 Electron Equivalent of a Redox Reaction

2.1.4.3 Balancing of Redox Reactions

2.2 Kinetics of Microbiological Systems

2.2.1 Kinetics of Homogeneous Reactions

2.2.1.1 Zero-Order Reaction

2.2.1.2 First-order Reaction

2.2.1.3 n-order Reactions

2.2.1.4 Growth Limitation Kinetics

2.2.1.4.1 Rate Limitation

2.2.4.1.2 Mass Limitation

2.2.2 Kinetics of Heterogeneous Reactions

2.2.2.1 Biofilms and Biofilm Kinetics

2.2.2.2 Kinetics of Hydrolysis

2.3 Temperature Dependency of Microbial, Chemical, and Physicochemical Processes

2.4 Acid–Base Chemistry in Sewers

2.4.1 Carbonate System

2.4.1.1 Air-Water Equilibrium

2.4.1.2 Water Phase Equilibria

2.4.1.3 Water–Solid Equilibrium

2.4.1.4 General Physicochemical Expressions

2.4.2 Alkalinity and Buffer Systems

2.5 Iron and Other Heavy Metals in Sewers

2.5.1 Speciation of Iron and Sulfide

2.5.2 Sulfide Control by Addition of Iron Salts

2.5.3 Metals in Sewer Biofilms

References

Chapter 3 Microbiology in Sewer Networks

3.1 Wastewater: Sources, Flows, and Constituents

3.1.1 Sources and Flows of Wastewater

3.1.2 Wastewater Quality

3.1.3 An Overview of the Microbial System in Wastewater of Sewers

3.2 Microbial Reactions and Quality of Substrate

3.2.1 Aerobic and Anoxic Microbial Processes

3.2.2 Anaerobic Microbial Processes

3.2.3 Microbial Uptake of Substrate and Hydrolysis

3.2.4 Particulate and Soluble Substrate

3.2.5 Organic Constituents in wastewater of Sewer Networks

3.2.6 Wastewater Compounds as Model Parameters

3.2.7 Biofilm Characteristics and Interactions with the Bulk Water Phase

3.2.8 Sewer Sediment Characteristics and Processes

3.2.8.1 Physical characteristics and Processes

3.2.8.2 Chemical Characteristics

3.2.8.3 Microbial Characteristics and Processes

References

Chapter 4 Sewer Atmosphere Odor and Air–Water Equilibrium and Dynamics

4.1 Air–Water Equilibrium

4.1.1 Basic Characteristics of the Air–Water Equilibrium

4.1.1.1 Descriptors for Volatile Substances at the Air–Water Interface

4.1.1.2 Partitioning Coefficient

4.1.1.3 Relative Volatility

4.1.2 Henry’s Law

4.1.2.1 Formulation of Henry’s Law

4.1.2.2 Temperature Dependency of Henry’s Law Constant

4.1.3 Water-Air EqUiLibriUm for Dissociated Substances

4.2 Air-Water Transport Processes

4.2.1 Overview of Theoretical Approaches

4.2.2 Two-Film Theory

4.2.2.1 Expressions for Mass Transfer across Air–Water Interface

4.2.2.2 Molecular Diffusion at the Air–Water Interface

4.2.2.3 General Characteristics of Air-Water Mass Transfer Coefficients

4.3 Sewer Atmosphere and Its Surroundings

4.3.1 Odors: Properties and Characteristics

4.3.2 Occurrence of volatile Substances in Sewer Atmosphere

4.3.3 Odorous, Corroding, and Toxic substances in Sewers

4.3.4 Air Movement and Ventilation in Sewers

4.3.4.1 Ventilation

4.3.4.2 Air Movement and Wastewater Drag

4.3.4.3 Experimental Techniques for Monitoring Air Movement and Ventilation

4.3.5 Odor and Health Problems of Volatile Compounds in Sewers

4.3.6 Odorous Substances in the Urban Atmosphere

4.4 Reaeration in Sewer Networks and Its Role in Predicting Air–Water Mass Transfer

4.4.1 Solubility of Oxygen

4.4.2 Empirical Models for Air–Water Oxygen Transfer in Sewer Pipes

4.4.3 Mass Transfer Rates for Volatile Substances Relative to Reaeration Rate

4.4.4 Air-Water Mass Transfer at Sewer Falls and Drops

4.4.4.1 Mass Transfer at Sewer Falls and Drops

4.4.4.2 Reaeration at Sewer Falls and Drops

4.5 Acid–Base Characteristics of Wastewater in Sewers: Buffers and Phase Exchanges

4.5.1 Buffer Systems in Wastewater of Sewers

4.5.2 Impacts of Volatile Substances on pH of Wastewater

4.5.3 Water-Solid Interactions and Impacts on pH Value

4.5.4 Final Comments

References

Chapter 5 Aerobic and Anoxic Sewer Processes Transformations of Organic Carbon, Sulfur, and Nitrogen

5.1 Aerobic, Heterotrophic Microbial Transformations in Sewers

5.2 Illustration of Aerobic Transformations in Sewers

5.2 A concept for aerobic transformations of wastewater in sewers

5.2.1 Conceptual Basis for Aerobic Sewer Processes

5.2.2 A Concept for Microbial Transformations in Sewers

5.3 Formulation in Mathematical Terms of Aerobic, Heterotrophic Processes in Sewers

5.3.1 Expressions for Sewer Processes: Options and Constraints

5.3.2 Mathematical Expressions for Aerobic, Heterotrophic Processes in Sewers

5.3.2.1 Heterotrophic Growth of Suspended Biomass and Growth-Related Oxygen Consumption

5.3.2.2 Maintenance energy requirement of suspended Biomass

5.3.2.3 Heterotrophic Growth and Respiration of Sewer Biofilms

5.3.2.4 Hydrolysis

5.3.2.5 Final comments

5.4 Do Mass Balances and Variations in Gravity Sewers

5.5 Aerobic Sulfide Oxidation

5.5.1 Sulfide Oxidation in Wastewater of Sewers

5.5.1.1 Stoichiometry of Sulfide Oxidation

5.5.1.1.1 Chemical Sulfide Oxidation

5.5.1.1.2 Biological Sulfide Oxidation

5.5.1.2 Kinetics of Sulfide Oxidation in Wastewater

5.5.1.2.1 Chemical and Biological Sulfide Oxidation, Reaction Order

5.5.1.2.2 Chemical Sulfide Oxidation, Effect of pH on Reaction Rate

5.5.1.2.3 Biological Sulfide Oxidation, Effect of pH on Reaction Rate

5.5.1.2.4 Chemical and Biological Sulfide Oxidation, Effects of Temperature

5.5.1.3 Sulfide Oxidation under Field Conditions

5.5.2 Sulfide Oxidation in Sewer Biofilms

5.6 Anoxic Transformations in Sewers

5.6.1 Relations between Anoxic and Aerobic Sewer Processes

5.6.2 Anoxic Transformations in the Water Phase

5.6.2.1 Heterotrophic Anoxic processes

5.6.2.2 Autotrophic Anoxic Sulfide Oxidation

5.6.3 Anoxic Heterotrophic Transformations in Biofilms

5.6.4 Prediction of Nitrate Removal under Anoxic Conditions

5.6.5 Concept for Heterotrophic Anoxic Transformations

References

Chapter 6 Anaerobic Sewer Processes: Hydrogen Sulfide and Organic Matter Transformations

6.1 Hydrogen Sulfide in Sewers:A Worldwide Occurring Problem

6.2 Overview of Basic Knowledge on Sulfur-Related Processes

6.3 introduction to hydrogen sulfide in sewer networks

6.3.1 Basic Principles of Sulfur Cycle in Sewers

6.3.2 Basic Aspects and Stoichiometry of Hydrogen Sulfide Formation

6.3.3 Conditions Affecting Formation and Buildup of Sulfide

6.3.3.1 Sulfate

6.3.3.2 Quality and Quantity of Biodegradable Organic Matter

6.3.3.3 Temperature

6.3.3.4 pH

6.3.3.5 Area/volume Ratio of Sewer Pipes

6.3.3.6 FIow Velocity

6.3.3.7 Anaerobic Residence Time

6.4 Predicting models for sulfide formation

6.4.1 Sulfide as a Sewer Phenomenon: 1900–1940

6.4.2 Toward a New Understanding of Sulfide in Sewers: 1940–1945

6.4.3 Empirical Sulfide Prediction and Effect Models: 1945–1995

6.4.3.1 Type I Sulfide Prediction Models

6.4.3.2 Type II Sulfide Prediction Models

6.4.3.2.1 Type II Sulfide Prediction Models for Force Mains

6.4.3.2.2 Type II Sulfide Prediction Models for Gravity Sewers

6.5 Sulfide-Induced Corrosion of Concrete Sewers

6.5.1 Concrete Corrosion as a Sewer Process Phenomenon

6.5.2 Prediction of Hydrogen Sulfide-Induced corrosion

6.5.2.1 Traditional Approach of Predicting Concrete Corrosion

6.5.2.2 A Process-Related Approach for Prediction of Concrete Corrosion

6.6 Metal Corrosion and Treatment Plant Impacts

6.7 Anaerobic Microbial Transformations in Sewers

6.7.1 Anaerobic Transformations of Organic Matter in Sewers

6.7.2 Conceptual Formulations of Central Anaerobic Processes in Sewers

6.7.2.1 Anaerobic Hydrolysis

6.7.2.2 Fermentation

6.7.2.3 Anaerobic Decay of Heterotrophic Biomass

6.7.2.4 Sulfate Reduction

6.8 Integrated Aerobic-Anaerobic Concept for Microbial Transformations

References

Chapter 7 Sewer Processes and Mitigation Water and Gas Phase Control Methods

7.1 Overview of Mitigation Methods

7.1.1 Inhibition or Reduction of SuLfide Formation

7.1.2 Reduction of Generated Suifide

7.1.3 Sewer Gas Reduction and Dilution

7.2 Sewer Process Control Procedures

7.2.1 General Aspects of Sewer Process Controls

7.2.1.1 Design and Management Procedures for Active Control of Sewer Gas Problems

7.2.1.1.1 Reaeration

7.2.1. 1. 2 Turbulence

7.2.1.1.3 Biofilms and Sewer Solids

7.2.1.2 Design Procedures for Passive Control of Sewer Gas Problems

7.2.1.3 Operational Procedures for Control of Sewer Gas Problems

7.3 Selected Measures for Control of Sewer Gases

7.3.1 Measures Aimed at Preventing Anaerobic Conditions or the Effect Hereof

7.3.1.1 injection of Air

7.3.1.2 injection of Pure Oxygen

7.3.1.3 Addition of Nitrate

7.3.2 Chemical Precipitation of Sulfide

7.3.3 Chemical Oxidation of Sulfide

7.3.3.1 Chlorine Compounds

7.3.3.2 Hydrogen Peroxide

7.3.3.3 Ozone

7.3.3.4 Permanganate

7.3.4 Alkaline Substances Increasing pH

7.3.5 Addition of Biocides

7.3.6 Mechanical Methods

7.3.7 Treatment and Management of Vented Sewer Gas

7.3.7.1 wet and Dry scrubbing

7.3.7.2 Biological Treatment of Vented Sewer Gas

7.3.7.3 Activated Carbon Adsorption

7.3.7.4 Forced Ventilation and Dilution

7.3.8 Evolving Mitigation Methods

7.4 Final Comments

References

Chapter 8 Sewer Process Modeling Concepts and Quality Assessment

8.1 Types of Process Models

8.1.1 Model Validation, Calibration, and Verification

8.1.1.1 Validation

8.1.1.2 Calibration

8.1.1.3 Verification

8.1.2 Empirical Models

8.1.3 Deterministic Models

8.1.4 Stochastic Models

8.2 Deterministic Sewer Process Model Approach

8.2.1 Principle of a Sewer Process Model

8.2.2 The Principle of a Solution to a Sewer Process Model

8.3 additional modeling approaches

8.3.1 Modeling at Catchment Scale

References

Chapter 9 WATS A Sewer Process Model for Water, Biofilm, and Gas Phase Transformations

9.1 Wats Model: An Overview

9.2 Process Elements of Wats Model

9.2.1 Process Matrix for Aerobic, Heterotrophic Organic Matter Transformations

9.2.2 Process Matrix for Anoxic, Heterotrophic Transformations

9.2.3 Process Matrix for Anaerobic, Heterotrophic Transformations

9.2.4 Process Matrix for the Sulfur Cycle

9.2.5 Acid–Base Characteristics and WATS Modeling

9.3 Water and Gas Phase Transport in Sewers

9.4 Sewer Network Data and Model Parameters

9.4.1 Sewer Network Data and Flows

9.4.2 Wastewater Composition

9.4.3 WATS Process Model Parameters

9.5 Specific Modeling Characteristics

9.5.1 Process Contents of WATS Model

9.5.2 WATS Modeling Procedures

9.6 Examples of Wats Modeling Results

References

Chapter 10 Methods for Sewer Process Studies and Model Calibration

10.1 methods for bench scale, pilot scale, and full scale studies

10.1.1 General Methodology for Sewer Process Studies

10.1.1.1 Bench Scale Analysis and Studies

10.1.1.2 Pilot Plant Studies

10.1.1.3 Field Experiments and Monitoring

10.1.2 Sampling, Monitoring, and Handling Procedures

10.1.3 Oxygen Uptake Rate Measurements of Bulk water

10.1.4 Measurements in Sewer Networks

10.1.4.1 DO Measurements

10.1.4.2 Measurement of Reaeration

10.1.4.3 In Situ Measurement of Biofilm Respiration

10.1.4.4 Gas Phase Movement and Ventilation in Gravity Sewers

10.1.5 Odor Measurements

10.2 methods for determination of substances and parameters for sewer process modeling

10.2.1 Determination of Central Model Parameters

10.2.2 Determination of the Biodegradability of Wastewater Organic Matter

10.2.3 Determination of Model Parameters by Iterative Simulation

10.2.4 Calibration and Verification of the WATS Sewer Process Model

10.2.5 Estimation of Model Parameters for Anaerobic Transformations in Sewers

10.2.5.1 Volatile Fatty Acids

10.2.5.2 Sulfide and Sulfide Formation Rate

10.2.5.3 Determination of the Formation Rate for Readily Biodegradable Substrate in Wastewater under Anaerobic Conditions

10.3 Final Remarks

References

Chapter 11 Applications Sewer Process Design and Perspectives

11.1 Wastewater Design: An Integrated Approach for Wastewater Treatment

11.2 Sewer Structural and Operational Impacts on Wastewater Quality

11.3 Sewer Processes: Final Comments and Perspectives

11.3.1 Wastewater Processes in General

11.3.2 In-Sewer Processes and Wet Weather Discharges of Wastewater

11.3.3 In-Sewer Processes and Sustainable Urban Wastewater Management

References

Appendix A Units and Nomenclature

A.1 Units

A.2 Nomenclature

A.2.1 General Overview

A.2.2 Tables of Symbols

Appendix B Definitions and Glossary

Appendix C Acronyms

Index