(Ebook) Introduction to Polymer Chemistry, Fourth Edition by Carraher Jr., Charles E ISBN 9781498737616, 9781498737852, 1498737617, 1498737854

(Ebook) Introduction to Polymer Chemistry, Fourth Edition by Carraher Jr., Charles E ISBN 9781498737616, 9781498737852, 1498737617, 1498737854

Cover -- Half Title -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- Acknowledgments -- Author -- How to Study Polymers -- Polymer Nomenclature -- American Chemistry Society Committee on Professional Training Requirements -- Chapter 1 Introduction to Polymers -- 1.1 History of Polymers -- 1.2 Why Polymers? -- 1.3 Today's Marketplace -- 1.4 Environmental Assessment -- 1.4.1 Environmental Impact Assessment -- 1.4.2 Ecological Footprint -- 1.4.3 Life Cycle Assessment -- 1.5 Managing Sustainability -- Summary -- Glossary -- Exercises -- Further Reading -- General Encyclopedias and Dictionaries -- Chapter 2 Polymer Structure (Morphology) -- 2.1 Stereochemistry of Polymers -- 2.2 Molecular Interactions -- 2.2.1 Glass Transition and Melt Transition -- 2.2.2 Secondary Structures -- 2.3 Polymer Crystals -- 2.4 Amorphous Bulk State -- 2.5 Polymer Structure-Property Relationships -- 2.6 Crystalline and Amorphous Combinations -- 2.7 Cross-Linking -- Summary -- Glossary -- Exercises -- Further Reading -- Chapter 3 Molecular Weight of Polymers -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Solubility -- 3.2.1 Basic Concepts -- 3.2.2 Theoretical Approaches to Solubility -- 3.3 Average Molecular Weight Values -- 3.4 Fractionation of Polydisperse Systems -- 3.5 Chromatography -- 3.5.1 General Chromatography -- 3.5.2 Ion-Exchange Chromatography -- 3.5.3 Affinity Chromatography -- 3.5.4 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography -- 3.5.5 Electrophoresis -- 3.5.6 Gel Permeation Chromatography -- 3.5.7 Size Exclusion Chromatography -- 3.6 Colligative Molecular Weights -- 3.6.1 Osmometry -- 3.6.2 End-Group Analysis -- 3.6.3 Ebulliometry and Cryometry -- 3.7 Light-Scattering Photometry -- 3.8 Other Techniques -- 3.8.1 Ultracentrifugation -- 3.8.2 Mass Spectrometry -- 3.9 Viscometry -- 3.9.1 Solution Viscosity -- 3.9.2 Melted Polymer Viscosities -- Summary -- Glossary -- ExercisesFurther Reading -- Chapter 4 Naturally Occurring Polymers -- 4.1 Polysaccharides -- 4.2 Cellulose -- 4.2.1 Paper -- 4.2.2 Paper Recycling -- 4.3 Cellulose-Regenerating Processes -- 4.3.1 Dissolving and Precipitation of Cellulose -- 4.3.2 Wrinkle-Free Fabric -- 4.4 Esters and Ethers of Cellulose -- 4.4.1 Inorganic Esters -- 4.4.2 Organic Esters -- 4.4.3 Organic Ethers -- 4.5 Starch -- 4.6 Other Polysaccharides -- 4.6.1 Glycogen -- 4.6.2 Dextrans -- 4.6.3 Chitin -- 4.6.4 Chitosan -- 4.6.5 Heparin -- 4.6.6 Hyaluronic Acid -- 4.6.7 Chondroitin Sulfates -- 4.6.8 Arabinogalactans -- 4.6.9 Carrageenans, Agar, and Agarose -- 4.7 Proteins -- 4.7.1 Basics -- 4.7.2 Primary Structure -- 4.7.3 Secondary Structure -- 4.7.3.1 Keratins -- 4.7.3.2 Silk -- 4.7.3.3 Wool -- 4.7.4 Tertiary Structure -- 4.7.4.1 Globular Proteins -- 4.7.4.2 Fibrous Proteins -- 4.7.4.3 Elastin -- 4.7.4.4 Membrane Proteins -- 4.7.5 Quaternary Structure -- 4.8 Nucleic Acids -- 4.8.1 Basics -- 4.8.2 Flow of Biological Information -- 4.8.3 Next Steps -- 4.9 Naturally Occurring Polyisoprenes and Other Synthetic Elastomers -- 4.9.1 Balloons -- 4.9.2 Resins -- 4.9.3 Rosin and Related Materials -- 4.10 Lignin -- 4.11 Melanins -- 4.12 Polymer Structure -- 4.13 Genetic Engineering -- 4.14 DNA Profiling -- 4.15 Asphalt -- Summary -- Glossary -- Exercises -- Further Reading -- Chapter 5 Step-Reaction Polymerization (Polycondensation Reactions) -- 5.1 Comparison between Polymer Type and Kinetics of Polymerization -- 5.2 Introduction -- 5.3 Stepwise Kinetics -- 5.4 Polycondensation Mechanisms -- 5.5 Polyesters and Polycarbonates -- 5.6 Synthetic Polyamides -- 5.7 Polymides -- 5.8 Polybenzimidazoles and Related Polymers -- 5.9 Polyurethanes and Polyureas -- 5.10 Polysulfides -- 5.11 Polyethers -- 5.12 Polysulfones -- 5.13 Poly(Ether Ether Ketone) and Polyketones -- 5.14 Phenolic and Amino Plastics5.15 Synthetic Routes -- 5.16 Liquid Crystals -- 5.17 Microfibers -- Summary -- Glossary -- Exercises -- Further Reading -- Chapter 6 Ionic Chain Reaction and Complex Coordination Polymerization (Addition Polymerization) -- 6.1 Cationic Polymerization -- 6.1.1 Kinetics of Cationic Polymerization -- 6.1.2 Poly(Vinyl Isobutyl Ether) -- 6.1.3 Polyoxymethylene -- 6.1.4 Poly(Ethylene Oxide) -- 6.1.5 Polyterpenes and Related Polymers -- 6.2 Anionic Polymerization -- 6.2.1 Kinetics of Anionic Polymerization -- 6.2.2 Cis-1,4-Polyisoprene -- 6.2.3 Living Polymers -- 6.3 Stereoregularity and Stereogeometry -- 6.4 Polymerization with Complex Coordination Catalysts -- 6.5 Soluble Stereoregulating Catalysis -- 6.6 Polyethylenes -- 6.6.1 Introduction Polyethylenes -- 6.6.2 High-Density Polyethylene -- 6.6.3 Linear Low-Density Polyethylene -- 6.6.4 Very-Low-Density Polyethylene -- 6.6.5 Ultrahigh-Molecular-Weight Polyethylene -- 6.6.6 Ultralinear Polyethylene -- 6.6.7 Cross-Linked Polyethylene -- 6.6.8 Medium-Density Polyethylene -- 6.6.9 Polymethylene -- 6.6.10 Shopping Bags -- 6.7 Polypropylene -- 6.7.1 History -- 6.7.2 Stereospecific Structures -- 6.7.3 Early Production -- 6.7.4 Forms of Polypropylene -- 6.8 Polymers from 1,4-Dienes -- 6.8.1 Introduction -- 6.8.2 Butadiene Rubber -- 6.8.3 ABS -- 6.8.4 High-Impact Polystyrene -- 6.8.5 Polyisoprene -- 6.8.6 Polychloroprene -- 6.9 Polyisobutylene -- 6.10 Metathesis Reactions -- 6.11 Zwitterionic Polymerization -- 6.12 Isomerization Polymerization -- 6.13 Precipitation Polymerization -- Summary -- Glossary -- Exercises -- Further Reading -- Chapter 7 Free Radical Chain Polymerization (Addition Polymerization) -- 7.1 Initiators for Free Radical Chain Polymerization -- 7.2 Mechanism for Free Radical Chain Polymerization -- 7.3 Chain Transfer -- 7.4 Polymerization Techniques -- 7.4.1 Bulk Polymerization7.4.2 Suspension Polymerization -- 7.4.3 Solution Polymerization -- 7.4.4 Emulsion Polymerization -- 7.5 Fluorine-Containing Polymers -- 7.5.1 Polytetrafluoroethylene -- 7.5.2 Poly(Vinyl Fluoride) -- 7.5.3 Other Fluorine-Containing Polymers -- 7.6 Polystyrene -- 7.7 Poly(Vinyl Chloride) -- 7.8 Poly(Methyl Methacrylate) -- 7.9 Polyacrylonitrile -- 7.10 Solid-State Irradiation Polymerization -- 7.11 Plasma Polymerizations -- Summary -- Glossary -- Exercises -- Further Reading -- Chapter 8 Copolymerization -- 8.1 Kinetics of Copolymerization -- 8.2 The Q-e Scheme -- 8.3 Commercial Copolymers -- 8.4 Block Copolymers -- 8.5 Graft Copolymers -- 8.6 Elastomers -- 8.6.1 General -- 8.6.2 Thermoplastic Elastomers -- 8.6.3 SBR Copolymers -- 8.6.4 Sales and Flammability -- 8.7 Blends -- 8.7.1 General -- 8.7.2 Immiscible Blends -- 8.7.3 Immiscible Blends: Remainder of the Section on Immiscible Blends -- 8.7.4 Miscible Blends -- 8.8 Polymer Mixtures: IPNs and Alloys -- 8.9 Dendrites -- 8.10 Ionomers -- 8.11 Fluoroelastomers -- 8.12 Nitrile Rubber -- 8.12.1 Laboratory Gloves -- 8.13 Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene Terpolymers -- 8.14 EPDM Rubber -- Summary -- Glossary -- Exercises -- Further Reading -- Chapter 9 Organometallic and Metalloid Polymers -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Inorganic Reaction Mechanisms -- 9.3 Condensation Organometallic Polymers -- 9.4 Coordination Polymers -- 9.5 Addition Polymers -- Summary -- Glossary -- Exercises -- Further Reading -- Chapter 10 Inorganic Polymers -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Portland Cement -- 10.3 Other Cements -- 10.4 Silicates -- 10.4.1 Network -- 10.4.2 Layer -- 10.4.3 Chain -- 10.5 Silicon Dioxide (Amorphous) -- 10.5.1 Kinds of Glass -- 10.5.2 Safety Glass -- 10.5.3 New Applications of Glass -- 10.5.4 Seeing Glass Lenses -- 10.6 Sol-Gel -- 10.6.1 Aerogels -- 10.7 Silicon Dioxide (Crystalline Forms): Quartz Forms10.8 Silicon Dioxide in Electronic Chips -- 10.9 Asbestos -- 10.10 Fly Ash and Aluminosilicates -- 10.11 Polymeric Carbon: Diamond -- 10.12 Polymeric Carbon: Graphite -- 10.13 Internal Cyclization: Carbon Fibers and Related Materials -- 10.14 Carbon Nanotubes -- 10.14.1 General -- 10.14.2 Structures -- 10.14.3 Properties -- 10.14.3.1 Electrical -- 10.14.3.2 Mechanical -- 10.14.3.3 Field Emission -- 10.14.3.4 Hydrogen and Ion Storage -- 10.14.3.5 Chemical and Genetic Probes -- 10.14.3.6 Analytical Tools -- 10.14.3.7 Superconductors -- 10.14.4 Health Issues -- 10.14.5 Potential -- 10.15 Bitumens -- 10.16 Carbon Black -- 10.17 Polysulfur -- 10.18 Ceramics -- 10.19 High-Temperature Superconductors -- 10.19.1 Discovery of the 123-Compound -- 10.19.2 Structure of the 123-Compound -- 10.20 Zeolites -- Summary -- Glossary -- Exercises -- Further Reading -- Chapter 11 Reactions of Polymers -- 11.1 Reactions with Polyolefins and Polyenes -- 11.2 Reactions of Aromatic and Aliphatic Pendant Groups -- 11.3 Degradation -- 11.4 Cross-Linking -- 11.5 Reactivities of End Groups -- 11.6 Supramolecules and Self-Assembly -- 11.7 Transfer and Retention of Oxygen -- 11.8 Nature's Macromolecular Catalysts -- 11.9 Photosynthesis -- 11.9.1 General -- 11.9.2 Purple Photosynthetic Bacteria -- 11.9.3 Green Sulfur Bacteria -- 11.10 Mechanisms of Physical Energy Absorption -- 11.11 Breakage of Polymeric Materials -- Summary -- Glossary -- Exercises -- Further Reading -- Chapter 12 Testing and Spectrometric Characterization of Polymers -- 12.1 Spectronic Characterization of Polymers -- 12.1.1 Infrared Spectroscopy -- 12.1.2 Raman Spectroscopy -- 12.1.3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy -- 12.1.4 NMR Applications -- 12.1.5 Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Spectroscopy -- 12.1.6 X-Ray Spectroscopy -- 12.2 Surface Characterization -- 12.2.1 Attenuated Total Reflectance12.2.2 Auger Electron Spectroscopy and X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy  Abstract: Cover -- Half Title -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- Acknowledgments -- Author -- How to Study Polymers -- Polymer Nomenclature -- American Chemistry Society Committee on Professional Training Requirements -- Chapter 1 Introduction to Polymers -- 1.1 History of Polymers -- 1.2 Why Polymers? -- 1.3 Today's Marketplace -- 1.4 Environmental Assessment -- 1.4.1 Environmental Impact Assessment -- 1.4.2 Ecological Footprint -- 1.4.3 Life Cycle Assessment -- 1.5 Managing Sustainability -- Summary -- Glossary -- Exercises -- Further Reading -- General Encyclopedias and Dictionaries -- Chapter 2 Polymer Structure (Morphology) -- 2.1 Stereochemistry of Polymers -- 2.2 Molecular Interactions -- 2.2.1 Glass Transition and Melt Transition -- 2.2.2 Secondary Structures -- 2.3 Polymer Crystals -- 2.4 Amorphous Bulk State -- 2.5 Polymer Structure-Property Relationships -- 2.6 Crystalline and Amorphous Combinations -- 2.7 Cross-Linking -- Summary -- Glossary -- Exercises -- Further Reading -- Chapter 3 Molecular Weight of Polymers -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Solubility -- 3.2.1 Basic Concepts -- 3.2.2 Theoretical Approaches to Solubility -- 3.3 Average Molecular Weight Values -- 3.4 Fractionation of Polydisperse Systems -- 3.5 Chromatography -- 3.5.1 General Chromatography -- 3.5.2 Ion-Exchange Chromatography -- 3.5.3 Affinity Chromatography -- 3.5.4 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography -- 3.5.5 Electrophoresis -- 3.5.6 Gel Permeation Chromatography -- 3.5.7 Size Exclusion Chromatography -- 3.6 Colligative Molecular Weights -- 3.6.1 Osmometry -- 3.6.2 End-Group Analysis -- 3.6.3 Ebulliometry and Cryometry -- 3.7 Light-Scattering Photometry -- 3.8 Other Techniques -- 3.8.1 Ultracentrifugation -- 3.8.2 Mass Spectrometry -- 3.9 Viscometry -- 3.9.1 Solution Viscosity -- 3.9.2 Melted Polymer Viscosities -- Summary -- Glossary -- ExercisesFurther Reading -- Chapter 4 Naturally Occurring Polymers -- 4.1 Polysaccharides -- 4.2 Cellulose -- 4.2.1 Paper -- 4.2.2 Paper Recycling -- 4.3 Cellulose-Regenerating Processes -- 4.3.1 Dissolving and Precipitation of Cellulose -- 4.3.2 Wrinkle-Free Fabric -- 4.4 Esters and Ethers of Cellulose -- 4.4.1 Inorganic Esters -- 4.4.2 Organic Esters -- 4.4.3 Organic Ethers -- 4.5 Starch -- 4.6 Other Polysaccharides -- 4.6.1 Glycogen -- 4.6.2 Dextrans -- 4.6.3 Chitin -- 4.6.4 Chitosan -- 4.6.5 Heparin -- 4.6.6 Hyaluronic Acid -- 4.6.7 Chondroitin Sulfates -- 4.6.8 Arabinogalactans -- 4.6.9 Carrageenans, Agar, and Agarose -- 4.7 Proteins -- 4.7.1 Basics -- 4.7.2 Primary Structure -- 4.7.3 Secondary Structure -- 4.7.3.1 Keratins -- 4.7.3.2 Silk -- 4.7.3.3 Wool -- 4.7.4 Tertiary Structure -- 4.7.4.1 Globular Proteins -- 4.7.4.2 Fibrous Proteins -- 4.7.4.3 Elastin -- 4.7.4.4 Membrane Proteins -- 4.7.5 Quaternary Structure -- 4.8 Nucleic Acids -- 4.8.1 Basics -- 4.8.2 Flow of Biological Information -- 4.8.3 Next Steps -- 4.9 Naturally Occurring Polyisoprenes and Other Synthetic Elastomers -- 4.9.1 Balloons -- 4.9.2 Resins -- 4.9.3 Rosin and Related Materials -- 4.10 Lignin -- 4.11 Melanins -- 4.12 Polymer Structure -- 4.13 Genetic Engineering -- 4.14 DNA Profiling -- 4.15 Asphalt -- Summary -- Glossary -- Exercises -- Further Reading -- Chapter 5 Step-Reaction Polymerization (Polycondensation Reactions) -- 5.1 Comparison between Polymer Type and Kinetics of Polymerization -- 5.2 Introduction -- 5.3 Stepwise Kinetics -- 5.4 Polycondensation Mechanisms -- 5.5 Polyesters and Polycarbonates -- 5.6 Synthetic Polyamides -- 5.7 Polymides -- 5.8 Polybenzimidazoles and Related Polymers -- 5.9 Polyurethanes and Polyureas -- 5.10 Polysulfides -- 5.11 Polyethers -- 5.12 Polysulfones -- 5.13 Poly(Ether Ether Ketone) and Polyketones -- 5.14 Phenolic and Amino Plastics5.15 Synthetic Routes -- 5.16 Liquid Crystals -- 5.17 Microfibers -- Summary -- Glossary -- Exercises -- Further Reading -- Chapter 6 Ionic Chain Reaction and Complex Coordination Polymerization (Addition Polymerization) -- 6.1 Cationic Polymerization -- 6.1.1 Kinetics of Cationic Polymerization -- 6.1.2 Poly(Vinyl Isobutyl Ether) -- 6.1.3 Polyoxymethylene -- 6.1.4 Poly(Ethylene Oxide) -- 6.1.5 Polyterpenes and Related Polymers -- 6.2 Anionic Polymerization -- 6.2.1 Kinetics of Anionic Polymerization -- 6.2.2 Cis-1,4-Polyisoprene -- 6.2.3 Living Polymers -- 6.3 Stereoregularity and Stereogeometry -- 6.4 Polymerization with Complex Coordination Catalysts -- 6.5 Soluble Stereoregulating Catalysis -- 6.6 Polyethylenes -- 6.6.1 Introduction Polyethylenes -- 6.6.2 High-Density Polyethylene -- 6.6.3 Linear Low-Density Polyethylene -- 6.6.4 Very-Low-Density Polyethylene -- 6.6.5 Ultrahigh-Molecular-Weight Polyethylene -- 6.6.6 Ultralinear Polyethylene -- 6.6.7 Cross-Linked Polyethylene -- 6.6.8 Medium-Density Polyethylene -- 6.6.9 Polymethylene -- 6.6.10 Shopping Bags -- 6.7 Polypropylene -- 6.7.1 History -- 6.7.2 Stereospecific Structures -- 6.7.3 Early Production -- 6.7.4 Forms of Polypropylene -- 6.8 Polymers from 1,4-Dienes -- 6.8.1 Introduction -- 6.8.2 Butadiene Rubber -- 6.8.3 ABS -- 6.8.4 High-Impact Polystyrene -- 6.8.5 Polyisoprene -- 6.8.6 Polychloroprene -- 6.9 Polyisobutylene -- 6.10 Metathesis Reactions -- 6.11 Zwitterionic Polymerization -- 6.12 Isomerization Polymerization -- 6.13 Precipitation Polymerization -- Summary -- Glossary -- Exercises -- Further Reading -- Chapter 7 Free Radical Chain Polymerization (Addition Polymerization) -- 7.1 Initiators for Free Radical Chain Polymerization -- 7.2 Mechanism for Free Radical Chain Polymerization -- 7.3 Chain Transfer -- 7.4 Polymerization Techniques -- 7.4.1 Bulk Polymerization7.4.2 Suspension Polymerization -- 7.4.3 Solution Polymerization -- 7.4.4 Emulsion Polymerization -- 7.5 Fluorine-Containing Polymers -- 7.5.1 Polytetrafluoroethylene -- 7.5.2 Poly(Vinyl Fluoride) -- 7.5.3 Other Fluorine-Containing Polymers -- 7.6 Polystyrene -- 7.7 Poly(Vinyl Chloride) -- 7.8 Poly(Methyl Methacrylate) -- 7.9 Polyacrylonitrile -- 7.10 Solid-State Irradiation Polymerization -- 7.11 Plasma Polymerizations -- Summary -- Glossary -- Exercises -- Further Reading -- Chapter 8 Copolymerization -- 8.1 Kinetics of Copolymerization -- 8.2 The Q-e Scheme -- 8.3 Commercial Copolymers -- 8.4 Block Copolymers -- 8.5 Graft Copolymers -- 8.6 Elastomers -- 8.6.1 General -- 8.6.2 Thermoplastic Elastomers -- 8.6.3 SBR Copolymers -- 8.6.4 Sales and Flammability -- 8.7 Blends -- 8.7.1 General -- 8.7.2 Immiscible Blends -- 8.7.3 Immiscible Blends: Remainder of the Section on Immiscible Blends -- 8.7.4 Miscible Blends -- 8.8 Polymer Mixtures: IPNs and Alloys -- 8.9 Dendrites -- 8.10 Ionomers -- 8.11 Fluoroelastomers -- 8.12 Nitrile Rubber -- 8.12.1 Laboratory Gloves -- 8.13 Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene Terpolymers -- 8.14 EPDM Rubber -- Summary -- Glossary -- Exercises -- Further Reading -- Chapter 9 Organometallic and Metalloid Polymers -- 9.1 Introduction -- 9.2 Inorganic Reaction Mechanisms -- 9.3 Condensation Organometallic Polymers -- 9.4 Coordination Polymers -- 9.5 Addition Polymers -- Summary -- Glossary -- Exercises -- Further Reading -- Chapter 10 Inorganic Polymers -- 10.1 Introduction -- 10.2 Portland Cement -- 10.3 Other Cements -- 10.4 Silicates -- 10.4.1 Network -- 10.4.2 Layer -- 10.4.3 Chain -- 10.5 Silicon Dioxide (Amorphous) -- 10.5.1 Kinds of Glass -- 10.5.2 Safety Glass -- 10.5.3 New Applications of Glass -- 10.5.4 Seeing Glass Lenses -- 10.6 Sol-Gel -- 10.6.1 Aerogels -- 10.7 Silicon Dioxide (Crystalline Forms): Quartz Forms10.8 Silicon Dioxide in Electronic Chips -- 10.9 Asbestos -- 10.10 Fly Ash and Aluminosilicates -- 10.11 Polymeric Carbon: Diamond -- 10.12 Polymeric Carbon: Graphite -- 10.13 Internal Cyclization: Carbon Fibers and Related Materials -- 10.14 Carbon Nanotubes -- 10.14.1 General -- 10.14.2 Structures -- 10.14.3 Properties -- 10.14.3.1 Electrical -- 10.14.3.2 Mechanical -- 10.14.3.3 Field Emission -- 10.14.3.4 Hydrogen and Ion Storage -- 10.14.3.5 Chemical and Genetic Probes -- 10.14.3.6 Analytical Tools -- 10.14.3.7 Superconductors -- 10.14.4 Health Issues -- 10.14.5 Potential -- 10.15 Bitumens -- 10.16 Carbon Black -- 10.17 Polysulfur -- 10.18 Ceramics -- 10.19 High-Temperature Superconductors -- 10.19.1 Discovery of the 123-Compound -- 10.19.2 Structure of the 123-Compound -- 10.20 Zeolites -- Summary -- Glossary -- Exercises -- Further Reading -- Chapter 11 Reactions of Polymers -- 11.1 Reactions with Polyolefins and Polyenes -- 11.2 Reactions of Aromatic and Aliphatic Pendant Groups -- 11.3 Degradation -- 11.4 Cross-Linking -- 11.5 Reactivities of End Groups -- 11.6 Supramolecules and Self-Assembly -- 11.7 Transfer and Retention of Oxygen -- 11.8 Nature's Macromolecular Catalysts -- 11.9 Photosynthesis -- 11.9.1 General -- 11.9.2 Purple Photosynthetic Bacteria -- 11.9.3 Green Sulfur Bacteria -- 11.10 Mechanisms of Physical Energy Absorption -- 11.11 Breakage of Polymeric Materials -- Summary -- Glossary -- Exercises -- Further Reading -- Chapter 12 Testing and Spectrometric Characterization of Polymers -- 12.1 Spectronic Characterization of Polymers -- 12.1.1 Infrared Spectroscopy -- 12.1.2 Raman Spectroscopy -- 12.1.3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy -- 12.1.4 NMR Applications -- 12.1.5 Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Spectroscopy -- 12.1.6 X-Ray Spectroscopy -- 12.2 Surface Characterization -- 12.2.1 Attenuated Total Reflectance12.2.2 Auger Electron Spectroscopy and X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy