(Ebook) Instrument Engineers' Handbook Volume 1 Process Measurement and Analysis 4th Edition by Bela Liptak 0849310830 9780849310836

(Ebook) Instrument Engineers' Handbook Volume 1 Process Measurement and Analysis 4th Edition by Bela Liptak 0849310830 9780849310836

Instrument Engineers' Handbook Volume 1 Process Measurement and Analysis 4th Edition by Bela G. Liptak - Ebook PDF Instant Download/DeliveryISBN:  0849310830, 9780849310836 

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ISBN-10 :  0849310830 

ISBN-13 : 9780849310836

Author: Bela G. Liptak 

The latest update to Bela Liptak's acclaimed "bible" of instrument engineering is now available. Retaining the format that made the previous editions bestsellers in their own right, the fourth edition of Process Control and Optimization continues the tradition of providing quick and easy access to highly practical information. The authors are practicing engineers, not theoretical people from academia, and their from-the-trenches advice has been repeatedly tested in real-life applications. Expanded coverage includes descriptions of overseas manufacturer's products and concepts, model-based optimization in control theory, new major inventions and innovations in control valves, and a full chapter devoted to safety. With more than 2000 graphs, figures, and tables, this all-inclusive encyclopedic volume replaces an entire library with one authoritative reference. The fourth edition brings the content of the previous editions completely up to date, incorporates the developments of the last decade, and broadens the horizons of the work from an American to a global perspective. Béla G. Lipták speaks on Post-Oil Energy Technology on the AT&T Tech Channel.

Instrument Engineers' Handbook Volume 1 Process Measurement and Analysis 4th Table of contents:

General 1
1.1 Analog vs. Digital Instruments
Introduction
An Overview of Signals and Signal Processing
Continuous and Digital Signals
Digital Signals
Analog Instruments
Analog Signal Processing
Application and Examples of Analog Instruments
Digital Instruments
Signal Conversion
Intelligent and IC Sensors
Basic Hardware
Inputs and Outputs
Communications and Networks
Virtual Instruments and Software
Application and Examples of Digital Instruments
Comparison of Analog and Digital Instruments
Bibliography
1.2 Computer Configurations of Supervisory Units
Introduction
History of Supervisory Control
Generic Features of DCS
Computer-Supervised Analog Controllers
Functions
Tasks
Supervisory Computer for Analog Loops
Process Models
Computer-Supervised Dcs Systems
Production Monitoring and Control
Online Information System
Supervisory Control Techniques
Supervisory Control Algorithms
Advanced Control Strategies
Computer Interface With Dcs
Hardware
Software
Conclusions
References
Bibliography
1.3 Computers—Simulation by Analog and Hybrid Systems
The Analog Computer
Operational Amplifier
The Inverter
The Summer
Frequency Response of the OP-AMP
Analog Circuits for Differential Equations
Magnitude and Time Scaling
Nonlinear Components
The Analog Computer Unit
Hybrid Computers
Hardware
Operation
Software
Process Simulation
Laplace Transforms
Lag Functions
Control System Simulation
Hybrid Simulation
References
Bibliography
1.4 Electronic vs. Pneumatic Instruments
Factors To Be Considered
The Old Debate
Hvac Damper Actuators
Pneumatic Actuators
Hysteresis
Spring Range Shift
Direct Coupled Electronic Actuator
Pneumatic vs. Electronic
Control Signals
Converters
Electrical Safety
The Modern Debate
References
Bibliography
1.5 Human Engineering
The Control Room of the 21St Century
Introduction
Man–Machine System
Information Theory
Characteristics of Man
Body Dimensions
Information Capability
Performance (Efficiency and Fatigue)
Application of Human Engineering
Statistics of Operator Population
Setting Priorities
Hardware Characteristics
Information Coding
Operator Effectiveness
Operator Load
Environment
Summary
Bibliography
1.6 Process Alarm Management
Introduction
History of Alarm Systems
Definitions
Alarm Basics
A.M. Costs and Designs
A.M. and Safety Instrumentation
Alarm Set Points
Alarm Presentation
Alarm Processing
Improving the Plant’S A.M.
Symptoms of A.M. Problems
The Tools and Elements of A.M.
A.M. Improvement and Rationalization Project
References
1.7 Speech Synthesis and Voice Recognition
The Nature of Sound
Introduction
Speech Synthesis
Adaptive Differential Pulse-Code Modulation (ADPCM)
Formant Synthesis
Text Synthesis
Voice Recognition
Word Boundary Detection
Feature Extraction
Pattern Standardization and Normalization
Word Matching
High-Level Linguistic Components
Practical Implementation
Bibliography
1.8 Wiring Practices and Signal Conditioning
Introduction
Electric Noise
Reduction of Noise
Noise Types
Noise Sources
Grounding, Wiring, Filtering
Ground Systems
Wiring
Filtering
Applications
Transducer Signals
Common-Mode Rejection Measurement
Thermocouple Signals
Low-Level Signal Multiplexing
A/D Converters
Conclusions
References
Bibliography
Control Theory 2
2.1 Control Basics
Introduction
History of Process Control
Process Dynamics
Resistance-Type Processes
Capacitance-Type Processes
Resistance and Capacitance
Process Gain
Process Time Constant
Closing the Loop
Oscillation and Phase Shift
Loop Gain and Tuning
Feedback Control
Feedback Control Objectives
The PID Controller
Feedforward Control
Feedforward Response
Cascade Control
Filtering
Advanced Controls
References
Bibliography
2.2 Control Modes—PID Controllers
Introduction
On/Off Control
Single-Speed Floating Control
The Proportional Control Mode
Proportional Offset
The Integral Mode
Reset Windup
The Derivative Mode
Limitations of the Derivative Mode
Inverse Derivative Control Mode
Pid Algorithm Variations
Digital Algorithms
Sample-And-Hold Algorithms
Conclusions
Bibliography
2.3 Control Modes—PID Variations
Pid Algorithms
Noninteracting Form
Interacting Form
Parallel Form
Set-Point Response Softening
Derivative and Proportional Actions
Set-Point Filtering
Windup Accommodation
Reset and External Feedback
PidτD Algorithm
Bibliography
2.4 Control Modes—Digital PID Controllers
Pid Position Algorithms
Pid Velocity Algorithms
Control Structures
Bibliography
2.5 Control Modes—Closed-Loop Response
Introduction
Linear Systems
Time and Frequency Domain Analysis
Open- and Closed-Loop Control
Open-Loop vs. Closed-Loop Control
Stability and Dead Time
Advantages of Closed-Loop Control
Closed-Loop Transfer Functions
Block Diagram Algebra
Overall Transfer Functions
Stability and Dynamic Performance
Following the Set Point
Load Disturbance
Dynamic Response
Frequency-Function-Based Evaluation
Loop Shaping
Conclusions
Bibliography
2.6 Control Systems—Cascade Loops
Introduction
Cascade System Advantages
Components of the Cascade Loop
The Secondary Loop
Secondary Control Variables
Cascade Primary Loop
Cascade Application Examples
Cascade Controller Design and Simulation
Summary
Bibliography
2.7 Empirical Process Optimization
Levels of Optimization
Empirical Optimization
Optimization
Providing Process Data
Search Procedure
Conclusions
References
Bibliography
2.8 Expert Systems
Artificial Intelligence
Expert Systems
Statistical Process Control (SPC)
Artificial Neural Networks
Future Trends
Fuzzy Logic and Neural Networks
Neural Networks
Summary
References
Bibliography
2.9 Feedback and Feedforward Control
Feedback Control
Limitations of Feedback Control
Best-Possible Feedback Control
Integrated Error
Feedforward Control
Load Balancing
Steady-State Model
Dynamic Model
Adding a Feedback Loop
Linear and Bilinear Feedforward Systems
Performance
Variable Parameters
References
Bibliography
2.10 Genetic and Other Evolutionary Algorithms
Introduction
Applications
The Concept of Ea
Fitness Function: Encoding the Problem
Model of Natural Selection
Genetic Algorithm
Genetic Programming
Evolutionary Strategy
Evolutionary Programming
System Identification
Polymerization Reactor Example
Complete Process Models
Process Control Applications
Controller Tuning
Application of IEC in Controller Tuning
Control Structure Design
Online Applications
Software Tools
Application-Oriented Systems
Algorithm-Oriented Systems
Tool Kits
References
Bibliography
2.11 Hierarchical Control
Hierarchical Levels
History
The Central Computer
Distributed Control
Hierarchical Control
Overall Tasks of Digital Control Systems
Detailed Task Listings
Lower-Level Computer Tasks
Higher-Level Computer Tasks
Bibliography
2.12 Interaction and Decoupling
Introduction
Interacting Process Example
Decoupling the Process
Generalizing the Solution
Measuring the Interactions
Merits, Drawbacks, and Compromises
Drawbacks
Partial and Static Decoupling
The Reactor–Flasher Example
References
Bibliography
2.13 Model-Based Control
The Structure of Mbc
Modeling Approaches
Internal Model Control (Imc)
Model Predictive Control (Mpc)
Process-Model-Based Control (Pmbc)
Summary
Bibliography
2.14 Model-Based Predictive Control Patents
Introduction
Patent Basics
Basic Patent History
Online Patent Databases
Patent Contents
Guide
Forms
Functions
References
2.15 Model-Free Adaptive (MFA) Control
Single-Loop Mfa Control System
MFA Controller Architecture
SISO MFA Control Algorithm
MFA and PID
MFA Control System Requirements
SISO MFA Configuration
Nonlinear Mfa Controller
Nonlinear MFA Configuration
MFA pH CONTROLLER
MFA pH Controller Configuration
Feedforward Mfa Controller
Feedforward MFA Controller Configuration
Antidelay Mfa Controller
Robust Mfa Controller
Robust MFA Controller Configuration
Time-Varying Mfa Controller
Time-Varying MFA Controller Configuration
Antidelay Mfa Ph Controller
Multivariable Mfa Control System
Two-Input Two-Output Mfa Control System
2 x 2 MFA Controller Configuration
Mimo Mfa Controller Application Guide
Mfa Control Methodology
Summary
Simple Solution
Use All Information Available
Information’S Accuracy
Technique That Fits the Application
References
2.16 Modeling and Simulation of Processes
Types of Simulations
Steady-State Simulation
Dynamic Simulations
Real-Time Simulations
Steady-State Simulations
Software Packages
Dynamic Simulations
Temperature and Vaporization
Pressure and Water Hammer
pH and Solubility
Sensors, Transmitters, and Final Control Elements
Simulation Languages
Real-Time Simulation
Future Trends
Virtual Plant
References
Bibliography
2.17 Model Predictive Control and Optimization
Model Predictive Control Principles
MPC vs. Feedback Control Summary
Process Modeling
Process Modeling Equations
Process Model Identification
FIR and ARX Modeling
Model Predictive Controller
MPC Controller Formulation
MPC Controller Equations
Integrating Mpc, Constraints, and Optimization
Optimization Equations
MPC Optimal Controller
MPC and Optimizer Integration
Mpc Application Development
Commissioning MPC Application
Conclusions
Bibliography
Abbreviations
Definitions
2.18 Neural Networks for Process Modeling
Neural Networks For Black-Box Modeling
Structure of Neural Networks
McCulloch-Pitts Neuron
Feedforward Multi-Layer Neural Networks
Example of an ANN
Training of Feedforward Neural Nets
Feedforward Computation
Weight Adaptation
Developing and Building Neural Networks
Concept
Design, Implementation and Maintenance
Data Collection and Preparation
Applying the Data for Validation
Hidden Layers, Nodes, and Algorithms
Applications
Identification of Dynamic Systems
Gray-Box Modeling
Neural Networks in Process Control
Plant Monitoring and Fault Detection
Intelligent Soft Sensors
Industrial Applications
Conclusions
References
Bibliography
2.19 Nonlinear and Adaptive Control
Introduction
Definitions and Terminology
Steady-State and Dynamic Adaptation
Approaches To Adaptive Control
Feedforward or Gain Scheduling
Feedback Adaptation or Self Adaptation
Intelligent Adaptive Techniques
Intelligent Identification and/or Tuning
Multiple Model Adaptive Control (MMAC)
Conclusions
References
Bibliography
2.20 Optimizing Control
Introduction
Defining Optimum Performance
Finding Minimum and Maximum Points
Optimization Considerations
Feedback or Feedforward Optimization
Reducing Set Point Variability
Evolutionary Optimization (EVOP)
Feedforward Optimization
Optimizing Tools
Linear Programming
Nonlinear Programming
Constraint Handling Methods
Gradient Search Method
Multivariable Noninteracting Control
Constraint Following
References
Bibliography
2.21 PID Algorithms and Programming
Pid Configurations
Algorithms
Digital Algorithms
The Position Algorithm
The Velocity Algorithm
Advantages and Disadvantages
Cascade and Ratio Control
Feedforward Control
Other Digital Algorithms
Process Control Programming
Types of Programs
Features of Process Control Programs
The Executive Program
Programming Languages for Process Control
References
Bibliography
2.22 Process Gains, Time Lags, Reaction Curves
Introduction
Process Gains
Dead Times and Time Constants
Instrumentation Effect on Process Dynamics
Transportation Lag
Dead Time Representation
Dead Time Approximations
Reaction Curves
First-Order Plus Dead Time Processes
Underdamped Processes
Integrating Plus Dead Time Processes
Conclusion
References
Bibliography
2.23 Ratio Control
Introduction
Flow Ratio Control
Advantages and Disadvantages
Ratio Stations
Setting the Ratio Remotely
Ratio Control Applications
Blending
Surge Control of Compressors
Bibliography
2.24 Real-Time Performance Assessment
Introduction
Plant Assessment and Monitoring
Loop Performance and Health Assessment
Related Assessments Criteria
Key Assessment Criteria
Plant Overview
Prioritization of Problem Areas
Performance Monitoring Software Capabilities
Case Studies
Model Predictive Controlled Refinery
Grade Change in a Pulp Mill
Conclusions
Reference
Bibliography
2.25 Relative Gain Calculations
The Relative Gain Array
Properties of λ
Calculation Methods
The Ratio of Partial Derivatives
Two Loops Open
Two Loops Closed
The Two-Slope Method
The Matrix Method
Reducing the Array
Decoupled Relative Gains
Partial Decoupling
References
Bibliography
2.26 Robustness: A Guide for Sensitivity and Stability
Robustness Plots
Dynamic Parameters
Design Guidelines
Conclusion
Bibliography
2.27 Sampled Data Control Systems
Sampled Data Control Systems
Symbols Used
Properties of SDCS
Mathematical Aspects of SDCS
Design Aspects
Dead-Beat Controller Algorithm
Smith Predictor Design
Conclusions
Bumpless Transfer and Controller Windup
Selection of the Sampling Rate
Bibliography
2.28 Selective, Override, and Limit Controls
Introduction
Overrides
Overriding at a Fixed Point
Override to Guarantee Valve Closure
Start-Up and Shut-Down Overrides
Selective Control
Limited Availability of Manipulated Variable
Selecting from Multiple Transmitters
High–Low Selection
Antireset Windup Overrides
The PI Controller
Design Procedure
Bibliography
2.29 Self-TUning Controllers
Introduction
Evolution
Self-Tuning Regulator (STR)
Model-Based Methods
Pattern Recognition Methods
Performance
Conclusions
References
Bibliography
2.30 Sliding Mode Control in Process Industry
Design Procedure
First Step
Second Step
Applications
Electromechanical Systems
Chemical Systems
SMC for SISO Chemical Process Control
SMC for MIMO Chemical Process Control
Smcr Implementation of Pid Algorithm
SMCr Implementation Methodology
Conclusions
References
Bibliography
2.31 Software for Fuzzy Logic Control
Introduction
Principle of Fuzzy Systems
Fuzzy Sets
Fuzzy Systems
Direct and Supervisory Fuzzy Control
Classical Fuzzy Control Algorithms
Model-Based Fuzzy Control
Inverse Fuzzy Model-Based Control
Fuzzy Model-Based Predictive Control
Operating Regime-Based Modeling
Takagi–Sugeno Fuzzy Models
Software and Hardware Tools
Project Editor
Rule Base and Membership Functions
Analysis and Simulational Tools
Code Generation and Communication Links
Conclusions
References
2.32 Stability Analysis, Transfer Functions
Introduction
Laplace Transforms
Theorems
First-Order Lag
Partial Fraction Expansion
Z Transforms
First-Order Lag
Inverse z Transform
State Space Representation
Vector and Matrix Operations
Second-Order Model
Multiple-Input Multiple-Output
Transfer Functions
Second-Order Lag
PID Controllers
Multiple-Input Multiple-Output
Block Diagrams
Linearization
Graphic Representations
Bode Plots
Nyquist Plots
Stability
Descartes’ Rule of Signs
Routh’s Criterion
Nyquist Criterion
Conclusions
References
Bibliography
2.33 State Space Control
Introduction
State Space Description
Control Law Design
State Variable Feedback
State Feedback with PI Control
Observer Design
Full Order Observer
Full Order Observer for Constant Error
Reduced Order Observer
Combined Observer-Controller
Combined Observer-Controller Behavior
Transfer-Function Interpretation
Conclusions
Bibliography
2.34 Statistical Process Control
Introduction
SPC and Process Control
Continuous Processes
What Is Statistical Control?
Spc Tools and Techniques
Control Charts
Charts and Tables
Interpretation of Charts
The Purpose of the Charts
Using Charts
Process Capability
Identifying Causes
Implementing SPC Concepts
Data Storage, Computation, and Display
Bibliography
2.35 Tuning PID Controllers
Disturbances
Sources
Dynamics
Step Responses
Simulating a Load Change
Comparing Set-Point and Load Responses
Set-Point Filtering
Open-Loop Tuning
Process Reaction Curve
Process Model
Integral Criteria Tuning8
Which Disturbance to Tune for
Lambda Tuning
Digital Control Loops
Closed-Loop Response Methods
Ultimate Method
Damped Oscillation Method
Comparison of Closed and Open Loop
Frequency Response Methods
Obtaining the Frequency Response
PID Tuning Based on Frequency Response
Fine Tuning
Optimum Load Response
Effect of Load Dynamics
Symbols, Abbreviations
Bibliography
2.36 Tuning Level Control Loops
Introduction
Idealized Model
Time Constant of the Tank
Determining Tuning Parameters
Example
Nonideal Processes
Irregular Vessel Shapes
No Cascade Loop
Dead Time
Unequal In- and Outflows
Flashing Liquids
Sinusoidal Disturbance
Other Approaches To Tuning
Averaging Level Control
Controller Gain and Resonance
Nonlinear Gain
Reference
Bibliography
2.37 Tuning Interacting Loops, Synchronizing Loops
Introduction
Multiloop Systems
Control Loop Analysis
Interacting Loops
Tuning to Eliminate the Interaction
Synchronizing Loops
Bibliography
2.38 Tuning by Computer
Introduction
Process Modeling
Time and Frequency Domains
State Space Models
Time Series Models
Fitting Simple Models
Step Response
Modified Step Response
Ultimate Gain Test
Discrete Cycling
Tuning Criteria and Formulas
Tuning and Diagnostic Software
Conclusions
References
Bibliography
Transmitters and Local Controllers 3
3.1 Controllers—Pneumatic
History and Development
Operating Principles
Booster Circuit
Proportional Response
Reset or Integral Response
Derivative Response
Miniature Controller Designs
Derivative Relay
Miniature Control Stations
High-Density Stations
Large-Case Designs
Receiver Controllers
Direct-Connected Controllers
Field-Mounted Controllers
Direct-Connected
Receiver-Type
Pneumatic with Electronic Detectors
Special Pneumatic Controllers
Connections for Digital Highways
Special Controls
Bibliography
3.2 Controllers—Electronic
Introduction
Analog Electronic Controllers
Analog On/Off Switch
Analog PID Controller
Digital Electronic Controllers
Performance
Communication Capabilities
Microprocessor-Based Controllers
Operation
Hardware
Software
Conclusions
References
Bibliography
3.3 Converters and Dampeners
Introduction
Pneumatic Converters and Dampeners
Pulsation Dampeners
Digital Converters
Analog Converters
Pneumatic-to-Electronic Converters
Current-to-Air Converters
Millivolt-to-Curreπt Converters
Voltage-to-Current Converters
Current-to-Current Converters
Resistance-to-Current Converters
Electronic Noise Rejection
Bibliography
3.4 Relays for Computing and Programmers
Introduction
Mathematical Functions
Pneumatic Relays
Multiplying and Dividing Relays
Adding, Subtracting, and Inverting Relays
Differentiating Relay
Scaling and Proportioning Relays
Integrating Relay
Square Root Extractor Relay
High- and Low-Pressure Selector and Limiter
Electronic Computing Elements
Multiplying and Dividing
Adding, Subtracting, and Inverting
Differentiating
Integrating
Scaling and Proportioning
Square Root Extracting
High- and Low-Voltage Selector and Limiter
Timing Elements
Analog Timing Operations
Digital Timing Operations
Programmers
Step Programmers
Profile Programmers
Bibliography
3.5 Telemetering Systems
Introduction
Basic Telemetry Concepts
Classical Configuration
Recent Trends
Operating Principles and Types
Base-Band Telemetry
Multiple-Channel Telemetry
Telemetry Protocols, Standards, and Networks
Protocols and Standards
Networks
Telemetry Equipment and Hardware
Sensor Networks
Telemetry Applications
Medical and Life Science Applications
Industrial Telemetry
Space Telemetry
Other Applications
Bibliography
3.6 Transmitters—Electronic
Transmitter Configurations
Two-Wire Loops
Three- and Four-Wire Loops
Measured Variables
Temperature
Pressure
Flow
Level
Motion
Important Features
Inaccuracy
Zero Suppression and Elevation
Turndown
External Calibration
Intrinsic Safety
Digital Communication
Transmitter Selection
Intelligent Transmitters
Desirable Features Checklist
References
Bibliography
3.7 Transmitters—Fiber-Optic Transmission
Introduction
Fiber Optics Basics
System Components
Fiber Sizes and Properties
Single- and Multi-Mode Fibers
Pulse Width Distortion
Fiber Selection
Fiber-Optic Cable
Fiber-Optic Connectors
Receivers and Transmitters
Modems
Modem Selection Criteria
Installation and Testing
Cabinets
Splicing
Pull Strength and Bending Radius
Testing
Conclusions
References
Bibliography
3.8 Transmitters—Pneumatic
Introduction
History
General Features
Signal Ranges
Baffle-Nozzle Error Detector
Force-Balance Devices
One-to-One Repeaters
Membrane d/p Cells
Pressure Transmitter
Motion-Balance Transmitters
Transmitters Grouped By Measured Variable
Differential Pressure Transmitter
Square Root-Extracting d/p Transmitter
Variable Area Flow Transmitter
Filled Bulb Temperature Transmitter
Buoyancy Transmitter (Level or Density)
Force Transmitter
Motion Transmitter
Speed Transmitter
Transmission Lag
Bibliography
3.9 Transmitters: Self-Checking and Self-Validating
Introduction
Levels of Diagnostic Information
How Diagnostics Are Performed
Diagnostics Transmission
Analog Transmitters
Microprocessor-Based Transmitters
Diagnostic Information Displays
Portable and Handheld Displays
Acting On the Diagnostic Data
Failsafe and Alarm Actions
Reference
3.10 Transmitters: Smart, Multivariable, and Fieldbus
Introduction
Operation and Performance
Digital Sensors
Sensor Compensation and Characterization
Multivariable and Inferential Sensors
HART Communication
Fieldbus Transmitters
Benefits of Advanced Transmitters
Savings
Installation and Commissioning
Parameterization
Integration into DCS and PLC Systems
Building Control Loops
Reference
Control Room Equipment 4
4.1 Annunciators and Alarms
Introduction
History
Principles of Operation
Operating Sequences
Annunciator Types
Integral Annunciator
Remote Annunciator
Semigraphic Annunciator
Recording Annunciators
Vocal Annunciators
Relay-Type Annunciators
Solid-State Annunciators
Annunciator Cabinets
Hazardous Area Designs
Intrinsically Safe Designs
Pneumatic Annunciators
Bibliography
4.2 Control Centers and Panels—Traditional
Introduction
Traditional Control Rooms
Control Rooms For Dcs Systems
Traditional Control Panels
Flat Panels
Breakfront Panels
Consoles
Traditional Front Panel Layouts
Large-Case Instruments
Miniature Instruments
High-Density Instruments
Graphic Panels
Back-of-Panel Layout
Panel Materials of Construction
Panel Specifications
Human Engineering
Panel Tubing and Wiring
Tubing
Fittings
Panel Wiring
Control Center Inspection
Panel Shipment
Conclusions
Reference
Bibliography
4.3 Control Center Upgrading
Baseline Evaluation
Original Design Perspective
Information Zones and Task Analysis
Building A New Control Room
Technology Advances
Computerized Procedure Systems
Phased Approach
Planning Ahead
Hmi Standards
Maintainability
Bibliography
4.4 Controllers—Electronic Analog and Digital
Introduction
Analog vs. Digital Controllers
The Controller’s Function
Feature Checklist
On/Off and Direct-Connected Controllers
On/Off Relay Outputs
Direct-Connected Controllers
Analog Controllers
Input Variations
Control Modes
Nonlinear Controllers
Special Features
Displays
Balancing Methods
Mounting
Servicing
Digital Electronic Controllers
Advantages and Disadvantages
Hardware Components
Software Capability
Faceplates and Programmers
Bibliography
4.5 CRT Displays
Introduction
Display Options
The Total System
Data Display Options
Keyboard
Display Capabilities
Refresh Memory
Character and Format Control
Vector Generator
Display Initiation
Propagation and Termination
Conclusions
Bibliography
4.6 DCS: Basic Trends and Advances
Introduction
Connectivity and Integration
Organizing the Project
The Future
Control Advances
Basic PID Algorithms
Auto-Tuning
Model-Based Control Algorithms
DCS Bid Package
Costs
Conclusions
References
4.7 DCS: Control and Simulation Advances
Introduction
Performance Monitoring
Controller Tuning
On-Demand Tuning
Adaptive Tuning
Fuzzy Logic Control
Model Predictive Control
Neural Network Applications
Process and Control Simulation
Conclusion
Reference
Bibliography
4.8 DCS: Installation and Commissioning
Introduction
Installation
Power and Grounding
System Assembly
HVAC and Heat Tracing
Field Wiring and Checkout
Bus Installation
Installing HART Networks
Commissioning
Training and Preliminary Checkout
Fieldbus Testing
Process Startup
Commissioning of Control Loops
Advanced Control
Conclusion
References
Bibliography
4.9 DCS: Integration with Buses and Networks
Introduction
Bus Integration
DCS Fieldbus Support
Field Networks
Fieldbus Devices
Function Blocks
Network Integration
Recent Integration Trends
Conclusions
References
Bibliography
4.10 DCS: Integration with Other Systems
Introduction
Existing Systems
MODBUS Interface
OPC Interface
Motor Controls
Fieldbus Interface
Safety Systems
Conclusions
Reference
Bibliography
4.11 DCS: Management of Abnormal Conditions
Introduction
Abnormal Condition Management
Types of Control
Need for Operator Intervention
Psychological Basis For Intervention
Detect Phase
Sort/Select and Monitor Phases
Plan/Act Phase
Response Time
Planning the Intervention
Types of Operations
Managing Abnormal Conditions
Control Room Design
Operator Training
Alarm System Design
Graphical User Interface
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Bibliography
4.12 DCS: Modern Control Graphics
Introduction
Function Block Representation
Standard for Process Control
Function Block Modes
Function Block Types
Sequential Function Chart (Sfc)
Ladder Diagrams
Batch S88
Safety Logic
Conclusions
Bibliography
4.13 DCS: Operator’s Graphics
Introduction
Operator Console Equipment
Video Display
Keyboards
Peripheral Devices
Remote and Web-Based Stations
Remote Clients
Web Pages
Operator Graphics
Types of Displays
Overview Graphic Displays
Graphic Displays
Faceplate with Detailed Display
Trend Displays
Static Graphic Components
Dynamic Elements
Dynamos
Aliases
Display Access
Process Performance Monitoring
Process Graphic Data Interfaces
Conclusion
Bibliography
4.14 DCS: System Architecture
Introduction
Analog Control
Direct Digital Control
Distributed Control System
Functional Components
DCS Control Network
Operator Console
Core Architectural Components
International Fieldbus Standards
Data Highway Designs
Control Network
Ethernet Configuration
Alarm Management
Alert Processing
Dcs Attributes
Reliability
Mean Time between Failure
Pricing
Bibliography
4.15 Digital Readouts and Graphic Displays
Introduction
Human Factors
Size and Contrast
Application Notes
Mechanical and Electrical Counters
Gas Discharge Displays
Cathode Ray Tube Displays
Rear Projection Displays
Light-Emitting Diode Displays
Liquid Crystal Displays
Passive Matrix Liquid Crystal Displays
Active Matrix Liquid Crystal Displays
Vacuum Fluorescent Displays
New Trends In Graphic Displays
Plasma Displays
Field Emission Displays
Electroluminescent Displays
References
Bibliography
4.16 Fieldbuses and Network Protocols
Introduction
Communications Hierarchy
Field Level
Control Level
Operations Level
Enterprise Level
Data Models
Network Basics
OSI Reference Model
Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
Fieldbus Protocols
As-I
Hart
Profibus Dp/Profibus Pa
Foundation Fieldbus
Modbus
Controlnet
Industrial Ethernet
Netwide Data Exchange
OPC Servers
Xml
Fdt/Dtm
Conclusion
References
Bibliography
Acronyms
4.17 Human-Machine Interface Evolution
Introduction
Functions of the Control System Hmi
Visualization and Control
Process Alarming
Trending
Dcs Consoles
DCS Console Graphic Standards
DCS HMI Redundancy
DCS HMI Chronological Evolution
The Open Hmi
Open HMI Display Standards
Documentation
Open HMI Evolution Chronology
Evolution of Hmi Architecture
Evolution of Plant Networking
Evolution of Control Rooms
Evolution of the Process Operator
2005 and Beyond
Distributed and Mobile Control
Remote Operation of the Plant
The Future
References
4.18 Indicators, Analog Displays
Terminology
Electrical Movements
Indication of Measurements
Fixed-Scale Indicators
Movable-Scale Indicators
Parametric Indication
Digital Indicators
Acoustic Indicators
Bibliography
4.19 Lights
Introduction
Light Source Characteristics
Light Selection
Colors and Flashing
Lenses and Operating Environments
Light Components
Lamp Types
Incandescent Lamps
Neon Lamps
Solid-State Lamps (LEDs)
Virtual Lights
Checklist
Conclusions
Bibliography
4.20 Recorders, Oscillographs, Loggers, Tape Recorders
Introduction
Sensor Mechanisms
Galvanometric Recorders
Light-Beam Recorders (Oscillographs)
Potentiometric Recorders
Open Loop Recorders
Linear Array Recorders
Recording Methods
Ink-Writing Systems
Inkless Systems
Paperless Systems
Charts and Coordinates
Circular Chart Recorders
Strip-Chart Recorders
Multiple Recorders
X–Y Recorders
Event Recorders
Tape Recording
Data Loggers
Bibliography
4.21 Switches, Pushbuttons, Keyboards
Introduction
Switch Designs and Operation
Switching Action
Contact Arrangements
Switching Elements and Circuits
Grades of Switching Devices
Types of Switching Devices
Pushbuttons
Toggle Switches
Rotary Switches
Thumbwheel Switches
Application and Selection
Human Factors
Display Movement
Error Prevention
Mechanical Features
Environmental Considerations
Bibliography
4.22 Touch-Screen Displays
Introduction
Touch Technology
Advantages
Touch-Screen Designs
Evaluating Touch Technologies
Overall System Design
Mechanical Considerations
Physical Attributes
Programming Considerations
Bibliography
4.23 Uninterruptible Power and Voltage Supplies (UPS and UVS)
Introduction
Uninterruptible Voltage Sources (Uvs)
Uninterruptible Power Supply (Ups) Features
Networks and Buses
Power Failure Classifications
Source Failure
Equipment Failure (Inverter)
Common Bus Branch (Load) Failure
System Components
Rotating Equipment
Batteries
Static Inverters
Bus Transfer Switches
Protective Components
Standby Power Supply Systems
Multicycle Transfer System
Sub-Cycle Transfer System
No-Break Transfer System
System Redundancy
Specifications
Bibliography
4.24 Workstation Designs
Classification of Workstations
Hardware Architecture
Function
Hardware Components
Software Features
Selection of Correct Platform
Comparing Various Operating Platforms
Cost
Reliability
Manageability and Administration
Scalability
Security
Error Handling
Integration of Software and Hardware
Openness
Conclusions
Glossary
Bibliography
PLCs and Other Logic Devices 5
5.1 Binary Logic Diagrams for Process Operations
1.Purpose
2. Scope
3. Use of Symbols
4. Symbols
Appendix A: General Application Example
A1. Introduction
A2. Simplified Flow Diagram
A3. Word Description
A4. Logic Diagram
Appendix B: Complex Time-Element Example
B.1 Word Description
Appendix C: Loss of Power Supply For Memory
Bibliography
5.2 Ladder Diagrams
Introduction
Ladder Diagram Symbols
Developing A Ladder Diagram
Automatic Mode of Operation
Summary
Ladder Diagram Analysis
Start-Up and Shutdown
Dynamic Breaking of a Motor
Fail-Safe Design
Documentation
Conclusions
Bibliography
5.3 Optimization of Logic Circuits
Optimization Building Blocks
Graphic Logic Functions
Ladder Diagrams from Logic Diagrams
Optimized Logic Circuit Construction
Logic Circuit Synthesis
Logic Simplification With Boolean Algebra
Logic Simplification through Logic Maps
Negative Vs. Positive Logic Usage
Summary
Bibliography
5.4 PLCs: Programmable Logic Controllers
Introduction
History
Plc Sizes
Nano PLCs
Basic Plc Components
Central Processor Unit (Real Time)
Memory Unit
I/O Systems
PLC Power Supply
Additional Plc Components
Communications Modules
Remote I/O
Peer-to-Peer Communications
Peripheral Devices
Local Operator Interface
Human-Machine Interface
Printers
Programmers and Workstations
Justification For the Use of Plcs
PLCs vs. Relays and Stand-Alone Controllers
PLC vs. DCS
PLC vs. Personal Computers
Summary
Project Execution
Systems Analysis
Open Systems
PLC Hardware, System Sizing, and Selection
PLC Installation and Panel Design
Software (Program) Development
Software/Hardware Integration
System Checkout and Start-Up
After Start-Up
Conclusion
References
Bibliography
5.5 PLC Programming
Introduction
What Is a PLC?
System Hardware and Operation
Programming Languages
Instruction List
Structured Text
Sequential Function Charts
Function Block Diagrams
Ladder Logic Programming
Ladder Logic Structure
Ladder Logic Programming Basic Instructions
Memory Structure
Ladder Logic Programming Devices
Programming Considerations
Program Documentation
PLC Hardware Configuration
Ladder Program Structure
Typical GE Fanuc PLC
Typical Allen-Bradley PLCs
Typical Modicon PLC 984
Access and Programming Modes
Developing the PLC Program Logic
Testing and Simulation
Advances In Programming
Reference
Bibliography
5.6 PLC Software Advances
Introduction
Graphic Description of Control Requirements
Ladder Logic Advances
Program Flow Modification
Indirect Addressing
Assembly Language-Like Extensions
Communication with Intelligent Devices
Fast I/0 Updating Methods
Graphic, Flowchart-Like Languages
Iec 61131-3 Plc Language Standard
Conclusion
References
Bibliography
5.7 Practical Logic Design
Design Philosophy
Open/Close Valves
Definitions
Auto Mode
Motor-Operated Valves
Failure Logic
Solenoid Valves
Pumps
Definitions
Auto Mode
Pump Fail
Other Common Problems with Pump Logic Design
Pumps with Two Outputs
Controlling Two Pumps Together
Breakers
Analog Controls
Switchover
Pop Open/Clamp Closed
Override Open and Close
Feedforward
Cascade
Three-Transmitter Select
Switch to Manual Mode
Changing the Set Point with Changes in the Number of Pumps Running
Start-Up and Shutdown Sequences
Operation and Customization
A Note On Safety
Bibliography
5.8 Programmable Safety Systems
Introduction
Risk Reduction
History
Safety Standards
IEC 61508: General Safety Standard
IEC 61511: Safety Standard for Process Industries
ANSI/ISA-84.01 Standard
Management Considerations
Hazard and Risk Analysis
As Low as Reasonably Practicable (ALARP)
Required Safety Integrity Level
Semi-Quantitative Risk Analysis Techniques
Risk Graphs
Safety System Certification
Major Trends
Overall Safety
Separation from the Control System
Flexibility and Scalability
Function Blocks
Safety System Selection
Acknowledgments
Acronyms
References
Bibliography
5.9 Relays
Introduction
Relay Types and Features
Special Relays
Relay Characteristics
Rating, Size, and Other Selection Criteria
Contact Configurations
Mechanical Structures
Contact Materials
Contact Shape and Mounting
Selection and Application
Selection
Relative Costs
Relays vs. Solid-State Devices
Electromechanical Advantages
Solid-State Advantages
Conclusions
Bibliography
5.10 Solid-State Logic Elements
Introduction
Analog Circuit Elements
Transistor Switch
Diodes and Their Switching
Transistors
Integrated Circuit Elements
Families of IC Switching
Applications
Merging Human and Instrument Inputs
Time Synchronization
Implementation Options
Solid-State Logic Options
Bibliography
5.11 System Integration: Computers with PLCs
Introduction
Pcs For Programming the Plc
Pcs For Monitoring and Supervising the Plc
SCADA System
Handling of Tasks
Implementation
Serial Link
Communication Networks
Performance
Generation Time (Tg)
Transmission Time (Tt)
Te, Tr, and Trd
Conclusions
References
Bibliography
5.12 Time Delay Relays
General Characteristics
Timer Modes and Characteristics
Types of Time Delays
Types of Designs
Bibliography
5.13 Timers and Programming Timers
Introduction
Mechanical Timers and Sequencers
Cam Timers
Band or Drum Programmers
Punched-Card Programmers
Timers
One-Shot Timers
Monostable and AStable Designs
Delay on Break
555 Devices
Hybrid Timing Circuits
Digital Sequencers
Asynchronous Sequencers
Electronic Sequencers
Conclusions
Bibliography
Control Valve Selection and Sizing 6

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