(Ebook) Biology 1st edition by Eldra Solomon, Charles Martin, Diana Martin, Linda Berg 1337392936 9781337392938

(Ebook) Biology 1st edition by Eldra Solomon, Charles Martin, Diana Martin, Linda Berg 1337392936 9781337392938

Biology 1st edition by Eldra P. Solomon, Charles E. Martin, Diana W. Martin, Linda R. Berg - Ebook PDF Instant Download/DeliveryISBN: 1337392936, 9781337392938 

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ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎1337392936 

ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 9781337392938

Author: Eldra P. Solomon, Charles E. Martin, Diana W. Martin, Linda R. Berg 

So you plan on majoring in Biology. Why wouldn't you want to use what's been described as the best majors' text for learning the subject? That's what you get with Solomon, Martin, Martin and Berg's BIOLOGY. Working like a built-in study guide, the integrated learning system guides you through the material, starting with key concepts for each chapter and learning objectives for each section. Check your grasp of key points before moving on by answering Checkpoint questions at the end of each section. Reinforce your understanding of the learning objectives with chapter summaries, followed by the opportunity to test your new knowledge. To further help you "get it," the eleventh edition uses themes--among others, the evolution of life and the inter-relationship of structure and function--as well as interactive online and multimedia resources. Ready to go for it? Then go for BIOLOGY.

Biology 1st Table of contents:

1. A View of Life
1.1. Major Themes of Biology
1.2. Characteristics of Life
Organisms Are Composed of Cells
Organisms Grow and Develop
Organisms Regulate Their Metabolic Processes
Organisms Respond to Stimuli
Organisms Reproduce
Populations Evolve and Become Adapted to the Environment
1.3. Levels of Biological Organization
Organisms Have Several Levels of Organization
Several Levels of Ecological Organization Can Be Identified
1.4. Information Transfer
DNA Transmits Information from One Generation to the Next
Information Is Transmitted by Chemical and Electrical Signals
Organisms Also Communicate Information to One Another
1.5. The Energy of Life
1.6. Evolution: The Basic Unifying Concept of Biology
Biologists Use a Binomial System for Naming Organisms
Taxonomic Classification Is Hierarchical
Systematists Classify Organisms in Three Domains
Species Adapt in Response to Changes in Their Environment
Natural Selection Is an Important Mechanism by Which Evolution Proceeds
Populations Evolve as a Result of Selective Pressures from Changes in Their Environment
1.7. The Process of Science
Science Requires Systematic Thought Processes
Scientists Make Careful Observations and Ask Critical Questions
Chance Often Plays a Role in Scientific Discovery
A Hypothesis Is a Testable Statement
Researchers Must Avoid Bias
Scientists Interpret the Results of Experiments and Draw Conclusions
A Scientific Theory Is Supported by Tested Hypotheses
Many Hypotheses Cannot Be Tested by Direct Experiment
Paradigm Shifts Accommodate New Discoveries
Systems Biology Integrates Different Levels of Information
Science Has Ethical Dimensions
Science, Technology, and Society Interact
Summary: Focus on Learning Objectives
Test Your Understanding
2. Atoms and Molecules: The Chemical Basis of Life
2.1. Elements and Atoms
An Atom Is Uniquely Identified by Its Number of Protons
Protons Plus Neutrons Determine Atomic Mass
Isotopes of an Element Differ in Number of Neutrons
Electrons Move in Orbitals Corresponding to Energy Levels
2.2. Chemical Reactions
Atoms Form Compounds and Molecules
Simplest, Molecular, and Structural Chemical Formulas Give Different Information
One Mole of Any Substance Contains the Same Number of Units
Chemical Equations Describe Chemical Reactions
2.3. Chemical Bonds
In Covalent Bonds Electrons Are Shared
The Function of a Molecule Is Related to Its Shape
Covalent Bonds Can Be Nonpolar or Polar
Ionic Bonds Form between Cations and Anions
Hydrogen Bonds Are Weak Attractions
van der Waals Interactions Are Weak Forces
2.4. Redox Reactions
2.5. Water
Hydrogen Bonds Form between Water Molecules
Water Molecules Interact with Hydrophilic Substances by Hydrogen Bonding
Water Helps Maintain a Stable Temperature
2.6. Acids, Bases, and Salts
pH Is a Convenient Measure of Acidity
Buffers Minimize pH Change
An Acid and a Base React to Form a Salt
Summary: Focus on Learning Objectives
Test Your Understanding
3. The Chemistry of Life: Organic Compounds
3.1. Carbon Atoms and Organic Molecules
Isomers Have the Same Molecular Formula but Different Structures
Functional Groups Change the Properties of Organic Molecules
Many Biological Molecules Are Polymers
3.2. Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides Are Simple Sugars
Disaccharides Consist of Two Monosaccharide Units
Polysaccharides Can Store Energy or Provide Structure
Some Modified and Complex Carbohydrates Have Special Roles
3.3. Lipids
Triacylglycerol Is Formed from Glycerol and Three Fatty Acids
Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Acids Differ in Physical Properties
Phospholipids Are Components of Cell Membranes
Carotenoids and Many Other Pigments Are Derived from Isoprene Units
Steroids Contain Four Rings of Carbon Atoms
Some Chemical Mediators Are Lipids
3.4. Proteins
Amino Acids Are the Subunits of Proteins
Peptide Bonds Join Amino Acids
Proteins Have Four Levels of Organization
The Amino Acid Sequence of a Protein Determines Its Conformation
3.5. Nucleic Acids
Some Nucleotides Are Important in Energy Transfers and Other Cell Functions
3.6. Identifying Biological Molecules
Summary: Focus on Learning Objectives
Test Your Understanding
4. Organization of the Cell
4.1. The Cell: Basic Unit of Life
The Cell Theory Is a Unifying Concept in Biology
The Organization and Basic Functions of All Cells Are Similar
Cell Size Is Limited
Cell Size and Shape Are Adapted to Function
4.2. Methods for Studying Cells
Light Microscopes Are Used to Study Stained or Living Cells
Electron Microscopes Provide a High-Resolution Image That Can Be Greatly Magnified
Biologists Use Biochemical and Genetic Methods to Connect Cell Structures with Their Functions
4.3. Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Organelles of Prokaryotic Cells Are Not Surrounded by Membranes
Membranes Divide the Eukaryotic Cell into Compartments
The Unique Properties of Biological Membranes Allow Eukaryotic Cells to Carry on Many Diverse Functions
4.4. The Cell Nucleus
Ribosomes Manufacture Proteins in the Cytoplasm
4.5. Membranous Organelles in the Cytoplasm
The Endoplasmic Reticulum Is a Multifunctional Network of Membranes
The ER Is the Primary Site of Membrane Assembly for Components of the Endomembrane System
The Golgi Complex Processes, Sorts, and Routes Proteins from the ER to Different Parts of the Endomembrane System
Lysosomes Are Compartments for Digestion
Vacuoles Are Large, Fluid-Filled Sacs with a Variety of Functions
Peroxisomes Metabolize Small Organic Compounds
Mitochondria and Chloroplasts Are Energy-Converting Organelles
Mitochondria Make ATP through Aerobic Respiration
Chloroplasts Convert Light Energy to Chemical Energy through Photosynthesis
4.6. The Cytoskeleton
Microtubules Are Hollow Cylinders
Centrosomes and Centrioles Function in Cell Division
Cilia and Flagella Are Composed of Microtubules
Microfilaments Consist of Intertwined Strings of Actin
Intermediate Filaments Help Stabilize Cell Shape
4.7. Cell Coverings
Summary: Focus on Learning Objectives
Test Your Understanding
5. Biological Membranes
5.1. The Structure of Biological Membranes
Phospholipids Form Bilayers in Water
The Fluid Mosaic Model Explains Membrane Structure
Biological Membranes Are Two-Dimensional Fluids
Biological Membranes Fuse and Form Closed Vesicles
Membrane Proteins Include Integral and Peripheral Proteins
Proteins Are Oriented Asymmetrically across the Bilayer
5.2. Overview of Membrane Protein Functions
5.3. Cell Membrane Structure and Permeability
Biological Membranes Present a Barrier to Polar Molecules
Transport Proteins Transfer Molecules across Membranes
5.4. Passive Transport
Diffusion Occurs Down a Concentration Gradient
Osmosis Is Diffusion of Water across a Selectively Permeable Membrane
Facilitated Diffusion Occurs Down a Concentration Gradient
5.5. Active Transport
Active Transport Systems “Pump” Substances against Their Concentration Gradients
Carrier Proteins Can Transport One or Two Solutes
Cotransport Systems Indirectly Provide Energy for Active Transport
5.6. Exocytosis and Endocytosis
In Exocytosis, Vesicles Export Large Molecules
In Endocytosis, the Cell Imports Materials
5.7. Cell Junctions
Anchoring Junctions Connect Cells of an Epithelial Sheet
Tight Junctions Seal Off Intercellular Spaces between Some Animal Cells
Gap Junctions Allow the Transfer of Small Molecules and Ions
Plasmodesmata Allow Certain Molecules and Ions to Move between Plant Cells
Summary: Focus on Learning Objectives
Test Your Understanding
6. Cell Communication
6.1. Cell Communication: An Overview
6.2. Sending Signals
6.3. Reception
Cells Regulate Reception
Three Types of Receptors Occur on the Cell Surface
Some Receptors Are Located Inside the Cell
6.4. Signal Transduction
Signaling Molecules Can Act as Molecular Switches
Ion Channel–Linked Receptors Open or Close Channels
G Protein–Linked Receptors Initiate Signal Transduction
Second Messengers Are Intracellular Signaling Agents
Many Activated Intracellular Receptors Are Transcription Factors
Scaffold Proteins Increase Efficiency
Signals Can Be Transmitted in More Than One Direction
6.5. Responses to Signals
Ras Pathways Involve Tyrosine Kinase Receptors and G Proteins
The Response to a Signal Is Amplified
Signals Must Be Terminated
6.6. Evolution of Cell Communication
Summary: Focus on Learning Objectives
Test Your Understanding
7. Energy and Metabolism
7.1. Biological Work
Organisms Carry Out Conversions between Potential Energy and Kinetic Energy
7.2. The Laws of Thermodynamics
The Total Energy in the Universe Does Not Change
The Entropy of the Universe Is Increasing
7.3. Energy and Metabolism
Enthalpy Is the Total Potential Energy of a System
Free Energy Is Available to Do Cell Work
Chemical Reactions Involve Changes in Free Energy
Free Energy Decreases during an Exergonic Reaction
Free Energy Increases during an Endergonic Reaction
Diffusion Is an Exergonic Process
Free-Energy Changes Depend on the Concentrations of Reactants and Products
Cells Drive Endergonic Reactions by Coupling Them to Exergonic Reactions
7.4. ATP, the Energy Currency of the Cell
ATP Donates Energy through the Transfer of a Phosphate Group
ATP Links Exergonic and Endergonic Reactions
The Cell Maintains a Very High Ratio of ATP to ADP
7.5. Energy Transfer in Redox Reactions
Most Electron Carriers Transfer Hydrogen Atoms
7.6. Enzymes
All Reactions Have a Required Energy of Activation
An Enzyme Lowers a Reaction’s Activation Energy
An Enzyme Works by Forming an Enzyme–Substrate Complex
Enzymes Are Specific
Many Enzymes Require Cofactors
Enzymes Are Most Effective at Optimal Conditions
Enzymes Are Organized into Teams in Metabolic Pathways
The Cell Regulates Enzymatic Activity
Enzymes Are Inhibited by Certain Chemical Agents
Some Drugs Are Enzyme Inhibitors
Summary: Focus on Learning Objectives
Test Your Understanding
8. How Cells Make ATP: Energy-Releasing Pathways
8.1. Redox Reactions
8.2. The Four Stages of Aerobic Respiration
In Glycolysis, Glucose Yields Two Pyruvates
Pyruvate Is Converted to Acetyl CoA
The Citric Acid Cycle Oxidizes Acetyl Groups Derived from Acetyl CoA
The Electron Transport Chain Is Coupled to ATP Synthesis
Aerobic Respiration of One Glucose Yields a Maximum of 36 to 38 ATPs
Cells Regulate Aerobic Respiration
8.3. Energy Yield of Nutrients Other Than Glucose
8.4. Anaerobic Respiration and Fermentation
Alcohol Fermentation and Lactate Fermentation Are Inefficient
Summary: Focus on Learning Objectives
Test Your Understanding
9. Photosynthesis: Capturing Light Energy
9.1. Light and Photosynthesis
9.2. Chloroplasts
Chlorophyll Is Found in the Thylakoid Membrane
Chlorophyll Is the Main Photosynthetic Pigment
9.3. Overview of Photosynthesis
ATP and NADPH Are the Products of the Light-Dependent Reactions: An Overview
Carbohydrates Are Produced during the Carbon Fixation Reactions: An Overview
9.4. The Light-Dependent Reactions
Photosystems I and II Each Consist of a Reaction Center and Multiple Antenna Complexes
Noncyclic Electron Transport Produces ATP and NADPH
Cyclic Electron Transport Produces ATP but No NADPH
ATP Synthesis Occurs by Chemiosmosis
9.5. The Carbon Fixation Reactions
Most Plants Use the Calvin Cycle to Fix Carbon
Photorespiration Reduces Photosynthetic Efficiency
The Initial Carbon Fixation Step Differs in C 4 Plants and in CAM Plants
CAM Plants Fix C O 2 at Night
9.6. Metabolic Diversity
9.7. Photosynthesis in Plants and in the Environment
Summary: Focus on Learning Objectives
Test Your Understanding
10. Chromosomes, Mitosis, and Meiosis
10.1. Eukaryotic Chromosomes
DNA Is Organized into Informational Units Called Genes
DNA Is Packaged in a Highly Organized Way in Chromosomes
Chromosome Number and Informational Content Differ among Species
10.2. The Cell Cycle and Mitosis
Chromosomes Duplicate during Interphase
During Prophase, Duplicated Chromosomes Become Visible with the Microscope
Prometaphase Begins When the Nuclear Envelope Breaks Down
Duplicated Chromosomes Line Up on the Midplane during Metaphase
During Anaphase, Chromosomes Move toward the Poles
During Telophase, Two Separate Nuclei Form
Cytokinesis Forms Two Separate Daughter Cells
Mitosis Produces Two Cells Genetically Identical to the Parent Cell
Lacking Nuclei, Prokaryotes Divide by Binary Fission
10.3. Regulation of the Cell Cycle
10.4. Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis
Meiosis Produces Haploid Cells with Unique Gene Combinations
Prophase I Includes Synapsis and Crossing-Over
During Meiosis I, Homologous Chromosomes Separate
Chromatids Separate in Meiosis II
Mitosis and Meiosis Lead to Contrasting Outcomes
10.5. Sexual Life Cycles
Summary: Focus on Learning Objectives
Test Your Understanding
11. The Basic Principles of Heredity
11.1. Mendel’s Principles of Inheritance
Alleles Separate before Gametes Are Formed: The Principle of Segregation
Alleles Occupy Corresponding Loci on Homologous Chromosomes
A Monohybrid Cross Involves Individuals with Different Alleles of a Given Locus
A Dihybrid Cross Involves Individuals That Have Different Alleles at Two Loci
Alleles on Nonhomologous Chromosomes Are Randomly Distributed into Gametes: The Principle of Independent Assortment
Recognition of Mendel’s Work Came during the Early 20th Century
11.2. Using Probability to Predict Mendelian Inheritance
The Rules of Probability Can Be Applied to a Variety of Calculations
11.3. Inheritance and Chromosomes
Linked Genes Do Not Assort Independently
Calculating the Frequency of Crossing-Over Reveals the Linear Order of Linked Genes on a Chromosome
Sex Is Generally Determined by Sex Chromosomes
11.4. Extensions of Mendelian Genetics
Dominance Is Not Always Complete
Multiple Alleles for a Locus May Exist in a Population
A Single Gene May Affect Multiple Aspects of the Phenotype
Alleles of Different Loci May Interact to Produce a Phenotype
In Polygenic Inheritance, the Offspring Exhibit a Continuous Variation in Phenotypes
Genes Interact with the Environment to Shape Phenotype
Summary: Focus on Learning Objectives
Test Your Understanding
12. DNA: The Carrier of Genetic Information
12.1. Evidence of DNA as the Hereditary Material
DNA Is the Transforming Factor in Bacteria
DNA Is the Genetic Material in Certain Viruses
12.2. The Structure of DNA
Nucleotides Can Be Covalently Linked in Any Order to Form Long Polymers
DNA Is Made of Two Polynucleotide Chains Intertwined to Form a Double Helix
In Double-Stranded DNA, Hydrogen Bonds Form between A and T and between G and C
12.3. DNA Replication
Meselson and Stahl Verified the Mechanism of Semiconservative Replication
Semiconservative Replication Explains the Perpetuation of Mutations
DNA Replication Requires Protein “Machinery”
Enzymes Proofread and Repair Errors in DNA
Telomeres Cap Eukaryotic Chromosome Ends
Summary: Focus on Learning Objectives
Test Your Understanding
13. Gene Expression
13.1. Discovery of the Gene–Protein Relationship
Beadle and Tatum Proposed the One-Gene, One-Enzyme Hypothesis
13.2. Information Flow from DNA to Protein: An Overview
DNA Is Transcribed to Form RNA
RNA Is Translated to Form a Polypeptide
Biologists Cracked the Genetic Code in the 1960s
The Genetic Code Is Virtually Universal
The Genetic Code Is Redundant
13.3. Transcription
The Synthesis of mRNA Includes Initiation, Elongation, and Termination
Messenger RNA Contains Base Sequences That Do Not Directly Code for Protein
Eukaryotic mRNA Is Modified after Transcription and before Translation
Biologists Debate the Evolution of Eukaryotic Gene Structure
13.4. Translation
An Amino Acid Is Attached to tRNA before Incorporation into a Polypeptide
The Components of the Translational Machinery Come Together at the Ribosomes
Translation Begins with the Formation of an Initiation Complex
During Elongation, Amino Acids Are Added to the Growing Polypeptide Chain
One of Three Stop Codons Signals the Termination of Translation
Transcription and Translation Are Coupled in Bacteria
13.5. Mutations
Base-Pair Substitution Mutations Result from the Replacement of One Base Pair by Another
Frameshift Mutations Result from the Insertion or Deletion of Base Pairs
Some Mutations Involve Mobile Genetic Elements
Mutations Have Various Causes
13.6. Variations in Gene Expression
Many Eukaryotic Genes Produce “Non-Coding” RNAs with Catalytic, Regulatory, or Other Cellular Functions
The Definition of a Gene Has Evolved
The Usual Direction of Information Flow Has Exceptions
Summary: Focus on Learning Objectives
Test Your Understanding
14. Gene Regulation
14.1. Gene Regulation in Bacteria and Eukaryotes: An Overview
14.2. Gene Regulation in Bacteria
Operons in Bacteria Facilitate the Coordinated Control of Functionally Related Genes
Some Posttranscriptional Regulation Occurs in Bacteria
14.3. Gene Regulation in Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic Transcription Is Controlled at Many Sites and by Many Regulatory Molecules
Chromosome Organization Affects the Expression of Some Genes
Long Non-Coding RNAs (lncRNAs) Regulate Transcription over Long Distances within the Genome
The mRNAs of Eukaryotes Are Subject to Many Types of Posttranscriptional Control
Posttranslational Chemical Modifications May Alter the Activity of Eukaryotic Proteins
Summary: Focus on Learning Objectives
Test Your Understanding
15. DNA Technology and Genomics
15.1. DNA Cloning
Restriction Enzymes Are “Molecular Scissors” Used to Construct Recombinant DNA Molecules
Recombinant DNA Is Formed When DNA Is Spliced into a Vector
Scientists Use Restriction Enzymes and Gel Electrophoresis to Examine Cloned DNA Fragments
The Polymerase Chain Reaction Amplifies DNA in Vitro
cDNA Clones Do Not Contain Introns
15.2. CRISPR-Based Technologies
CRISPR-Based Technologies Can Be Used to Edit Genes in Growing Cells
CRISPR-Based Tools Exploit Host DNA Repair Systems to Perform Many Types of Recombinant DNA Functions
Engineered CRISPR Systems Are Used for Specialized Research Applications
15.3. Tools for Studying DNA
DNA, RNA, and Protein Blots Detect Differences in Related Molecules Separated by Gel Electrophoresis
Automated DNA Sequencing Methods Have Been Developed
Gene Databases Are Powerful Research Tools
Reverse Transcription of mRNA to cDNA Is Used to Measure Gene Expression in Numerous Ways
15.4. Genomics
Collaborative Genome-Wide Association Studies Have Radically Changed Our View of the Human Genome
Comparative Genomic Databases Are Tools for Uncovering Gene Functions
RNA Interference Is Used to Study Gene Functions
15.5. Applications of DNA Technologies
DNA Technology Has Revolutionized Medicine
DNA Fingerprinting Has Numerous Applications
Transgenic Organisms Have Many Research and Technological Applications
15.6. CRISPR-Based Gene Drives
15.7. DNA Technology and Safety Concerns
Summary: Focus on Learning Objectives
Test Your Understanding
16. Human Genetics and the Human Genome
16.1. Studying Human Genetics
Human Chromosomes Are Studied by Karyotyping
Family Pedigrees Help Identify Certain Inherited Conditions
Human Gene Databases Allow Geneticists to Map the Locations of Genes on Chromosomes
16.2. Abnormalities in Chromosome Number and Structure
Down Syndrome Is Usually Caused by Trisomy 21
Most Sex Chromosome Aneuploidies Are Less Severe Than Autosomal Aneuploidies
Abnormalities in Chromosome Structure Cause Certain Disorders
Genomic Imprinting May Determine Whether Inheritance Is from the Male or Female Parent
16.3. Genetic Diseases Caused by Single-Gene Mutations
Many Genetic Diseases Are Inherited as Autosomal Recessive Traits
Some Genetic Diseases Are Inherited as Autosomal Dominant Traits
Some Genetic Diseases Are Inherited as X-Linked Recessive Traits
16.4. Gene Therapy
Performing Clinical Trials on Humans Always Has Inherent Risks
16.5. Genetic Testing and Counseling
Prenatal Diagnosis Detects Chromosome Abnormalities and Gene Defects
Preimplanation Genetic Diagnosis Is Used to Screen Embryos Produced by in vitro Fertilization
Genetic Screening Searches for Genotypes or Karyotypes
Genetic Counselors Educate People about Genetic Diseases
16.6. Human Genetics, Society, and Ethics
Genetic Discrimination Provokes Heated Debate
Many Ethical Issues Related to Human Genetics Must Be Addressed
Summary: Focus on Learning Objectives
Test Your Understanding
17. Developmental Genetics
17.1. Cell Differentiation and Nuclear Equivalence
Most Cell Differences Are Due to Differential Gene Expression
A Totipotent Nucleus Contains All the Instructions for Development
The First Cloned Mammal Was a Sheep
Stem Cells Divide and Give Rise to Differentiated Cells
17.2. The Genetic Control of Development
A Variety of Model Organisms Provide Insights into Basic Biological Processes
Many Genes That Control Development Have Been Identified in the Fruit Fly
Caenorhabditis Elegans Has a Relatively Rigid Developmental Pattern
The Mouse Is a Model for Mammalian Development
Arabidopsis Is a Model for Studying Plant Development, Including Transcription Factors
17.3. Cancer and Cell Development
Oncogenes Are Usually Altered Components of Cell Signaling Pathways That Control Growth and Differentiation
In Many Familial Cancers, Tumor Suppressor Genes Must Be Inactivated before Cells Progress to Cancer
Cancer Cells Evolve by Accumulating New Mutations
Summary: Focus on Learning Objectives
Test Your Understanding
18. Introduction to Darwinian Evolution
18.1. What Is Evolution?
18.2. Pre-Darwinian Ideas about Evolution
18.3. Darwin and Evolution
Darwin Proposed That Evolution Occurs by Natural Selection
The Modern Synthesis Combines Darwin’s Scientific Theory of Evolution with Genetics
Biologists Study the Effect of Chance on Evolution
18.4. Evidence for Evolution
The Fossil Record Provides Strong Evidence for Evolution
The Distribution of Plants and Animals Supports Evolution
Comparative Anatomy of Related Species Demonstrates Similarities in Their Structures
Molecular Comparisons among Organisms Provide Evidence for Evolution
Developmental Biology Helps Unravel Evolutionary Patterns
Evolutionary Hypotheses Are Tested Experimentally
Summary: Focus on Learning Objectives
Test Your Understanding
19. Evolutionary Change in Populations
19.1. Genotype, Phenotype, and Allele Frequencies
19.2. The Hardy–Weinberg Principle
Genetic Equilibrium Occurs if Certain Conditions Are Met
Human MN Blood Groups Are a Valuable Illustration of the Hardy–Weinberg Principle
19.3. Microevolution
Nonrandom Mating Changes Genotype Frequencies
Mutation Increases Variation within a Population
In Genetic Drift, Random Events Change Allele Frequencies
Gene Flow Generally Increases Variation within a Population
Natural Selection Changes Allele Frequencies in a Way That Increases Adaptation
19.4. Genetic Variation in Populations
Genetic Polymorphism Can Be Studied in Several Ways
Balanced Polymorphism Exists for Long Periods
Neutral Variation May Give No Selective Advantage or Disadvantage
Populations in Different Geographic Areas Often Exhibit Genetic Adaptations to Local Environments
Summary: Focus on Learning Objectives
Test Your Understanding
20. Speciation and Macroevolution
20.1. What Is a Species?
The Biological Species Concept Is Based on Reproductive Isolation
The Phylogenetic Species Concept Defines Species Based on Such Evidence as Molecular Sequencing
20.2. Reproductive Isolation
Prezygotic Barriers Interfere with Fertilization
Postzygotic Barriers Prevent Gene Flow When Fertilization Occurs
Biologists Are Discovering Genes Responsible for Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms
20.3. Speciation
Long Physical Isolation and Different Selective Pressures Result in Allopatric Speciation
The Evolutionary Importance of Hybridization Is Being Re-Evaluated
20.4. The Rate of Evolutionary Change
20.5. Macroevolution
Evolutionary Novelties Originate through Modifications of Pre-Existing Structures
Adaptive Radiation Is the Diversification of an Ancestral Species into Many Species
Extinction Is an Important Aspect of Evolution
Is Microevolution Related to Speciation and Macroevolution?
Summary: Focus on Learning Objectives
Test Your Understanding

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